"Passport to Kingdom Fungi" Endnote References
Part One:
Chapter 1: Understanding Our Fungal Friends
1. Miguel Ángel Naranjo-Ortiz and Toni Gabaldón, “Fungal Evolution: Diversity, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Fungi,” Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 94, no. 6 (December 2019): 2101–37, https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12550.
2. David Moore, “2.8 The Fungal Phylogeny,” DavidMoore.org, last modified September 2020, https://www.davidmoore.org.uk/21st_Century_Guidebook_to_Fungi_PLATINUM/Ch02_08.htm.
3. Robert Starke et al., “Niche Differentiation of Bacteria and Fungi in Carbon and Nitrogen Cycling of Different Habitats in a Temperate Coniferous Forest: A Metaproteomic Approach,” Soil Biology and Biochemistry 155 (April 2021): 108170, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2021.108170.
4. Ibid.
5. Ching-Han Lee et al., “Sensory Cilia as the Achilles Heel of Nematodes When Attacked by Carnivorous Mushrooms,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 11 (March 2, 2020), 6014–22, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1918473117.
6. Mark D. Fricker et al., “The Mycelium as a Network,” Microbiology Spectrum 5, no. 3 (May 19, 2017), FUNK-0033-2017, https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.funk-0033-2017.
7. Marisol Sánchez-García et al., “Fruiting Body Form, Not Nutritional Mode, Is the Major Driver of Diversification in Mushroom-Forming Fungi,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 51 (December 22, 2020): 32528–34, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1922539117.
8. Martin Cheek et al., “New Scientific Discoveries: Plants and Fungi,” Plants, People, Planet 2, no. 5 (September 2020): 371–88, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10148.
9. Hannah Ritchie, “How Many Species Are There?,” OurWorldinData.org, November 30, 2022, https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-species-are-there.
10. David L. Hawksworth and Robert Lücking, “Fungal Diversity Revisited: 2.2 to 3.8 Million Species,” Microbiology Spectrum 5, no. 4 (July 28, 2017), FUNK-0052-2016, https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.funk-0052-2016.
11. Meredith Blackwell, “The Fungi: 1, 2, 3 . . . 5.1 Million Species?,” American Journal of Botany 98, no. 3 (March 2011): 426–38, https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.1000298.
12. Brendan B. Larsen et al., “Inordinate Fondness Multiplied and Redistributed: The Number of Species on Earth and the New Pie of Life,” The Quarterly Review of Biology 92, no. 3 (September 2017), https://doi.org/10.1086/693564.
13. László G. Nagy, Gábor M. Kovács, and Krisztina Krizsán, “Complex Multicellularity in Fungi: Evolutionary Convergence, Single Origin, or Both?,” Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 93, no. 4 (November 2018): 1778–94, https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12418.
14. David S. Hibbett et al., “A Higher-Level Phylogenetic Classification of the Fungi,” Mycological Research 111, no. 5 (May 2007): 509–47, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004.
15. Neil A. R. Gow, Jean-Paul Latge, and Carol A. Munro, “The Fungal Cell Wall: Structure, Biosynthesis, and Function,” Microbiology Spectrum 5, no. 3 (May 2017): FUNK-0035-2016, https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.funk-0035-2016.
16. Russell F. Doolittle et al., “Determining Divergence Times of the Major Kingdoms of Living Organisms with a Protein Clock,” Science 271, no. 5248 (January 26, 1996): 470–77, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.271.5248.470.
17. Helene C. Eisenman and Arturo Casadevall, “Synthesis and Assembly of Fungal Melanin,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 93 (February 2012): 931–40, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-011-3777-2.
18. Kathleen K. Treseder and Jay T. Lennon, “Fungal Traits That Drive Ecosystem Dynamics on Land,” Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 79, no. 2 (June 2015): 243–62, https://doi.org/10.1128/mmbr.00001-15.
Chapter 2: Fungal Evolution and Reproduction
1. Tauana Junqueira Cunha, “Origins of Eukaryotes: Who Are Our Closest Relatives?,” SITNBoston, May 5, 2014, https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2014/origins-of-eukaryotes-who-are-our-closest-relatives/.
2. Heidi Ledford, “Billion-Year-Old Fossils Set Back Evolution of Earliest Fungi,” Nature, May 22, 2019, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01629-1.
3. Miguel Ángel Naranjo-Ortiz and Toni Gabaldón, “Fungal Evolution: Major Ecological Adaptations and Evolutionary Transitions,” Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 94, no. 4 (August 2019): 1443–76, https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12510.
4. Steeve C. Bonneville et al., “Molecular Identification of Fungi Microfossils in a Neoproterozoic Shale Rock,” Science Advances 6, no. 4 (January 22, 2020): eaax7599, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax7599.
5. François Lutzoni et al., “Contemporaneous Radiations of Fungi and Plants Linked to Symbiosis,” Nature Communications 9 (December 21, 2018): 5451, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07849-9.
6. David Hibbett et al., “Climate, Decay, and the Death of the Coal Forests,” Current Biology 26, no. 13 (July 11, 2016): PR563–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.014.
7. Torda Varga et al., “Megaphylogeny Resolves Global Patterns of Mushroom Evolution,” Nature Ecology & Evolution 3 (April 2019): 668–78, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0834-1.
8. Thomas N. Taylor, Michael Krings, and Edith L. Taylor, “10. Fungal Diversity in the Fossil Record,” in Systematics and Evolution, ed. David J. McLaughlin and Joseph W. Spatafora, The Mycota, vol. 7B, 2nd ed. (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 2015), 25, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46011-5_10.
9. Mary L. Berbee et al., “Genomic and Fossil Windows into the Secret Lives of the Most Ancient Fungi,” Nature Reviews Microbiology 18 (December 2020): 717–30, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-020-0426-8.
10. François Lutzoni et al., “Contemporaneous Radiations of Fungi and Plants Linked to Symbiosis,” Nature Communications 9 (December 21, 2018): 5451, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07849-9.
11. Torda Varga et al., “Megaphylogeny Resolves Global Patterns of Mushroom Evolution,” Nature Ecology & Evolution 3 (April 2019): 668–78, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0834-1.
12. Ibid.
13. Linda E. Graham et al., “Structural, Physiological, and Stable Carbon Isotopic Evidence That the Enigmatic Paleozoic Fossil Prototaxites Formed from Rolled Liverwort Mats,” American Journal of Botany 97, no. 2 (February 2010): 268–75, https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.0900322.
14. Francis M. Hueber, “Rotted Wood–Alga–Fungus: The History and Life of Prototaxites Dawson 1859,” Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 116, no. 1–2 (August 2001): 123–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-6667(01)00058-6.
15. Matthew P. Nelsen and C. Kevin Boyce, “What to Do with Prototaxites?,” International Journal of Plant Sciences 183, no. 6 (July/August 2022): 556–65, https://doi.org/10.1086/720688.
16. Vivi Vajda et al., “Prototaxites Reinterpreted as Mega-Rhizomorphs, Facilitating Nutrient Transport in Early Terrestrial Ecosystems,” Canadian Journal of Microbiology 69, no. 1 (January 2023): 17–31, https://doi.org/10.1139/cjm-2021-0358.
17. Estelle Levetin, W. Elliott Horner, and James A. Scott, “Taxonomy of Allergenic Fungi,” The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice 4, no. 3 (May/June 2016): 375–85, E1, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2015.10.012.
18. Min Ni et al., “Sex in Fungi,” Annual Review of Genetics 45 (December 2011): 405–30, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genet-110410-132536.
19. Andrea M. Wilson et al., “Homothallism: An Umbrella Term for Describing Diverse Sexual Behaviours,” IMA Fungus 6 (June 19, 2015): 207–14, https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2015.06.01.13.
Chapter 3: Fungal Taxonomy
1. Fabien Burki et al., “The New Tree of Eukaryotes,” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 35, no. 1 (January 2020): P43–55, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.008.
2. Keith Seifert, The Hidden Kingdom of Fungi: Exploring the Microscopic World in Our Forests, Homes, and Bodies (Vancouver, BC: Greystone Books, 2022), 19.
3. Timothy Y. James et al., “Toward a Fully Resolved Fungal Tree of Life,” Annual Review of Microbiology 74 (September 2020): 291–313, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-micro-022020-051835.
4. Ibid.
5. Ben C. Scheele et al., “Amphibian Fungal Panzootic Causes Catastrophic and Ongoing Loss of Biodiversity,” Science 363, no. 6434 (March 29, 2019): 1459–63, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav0379.
6. Thomas J. Smith and Philip C. J. Donoghue, “Evolution of Fungal Phenotypic Disparity,” Nature Ecology & Evolution 6 (October 2022): 1489–1500, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01844-6.
7. Ibid.
8. Ben C. Scheele et al., “Amphibian Fungal Panzootic Causes Catastrophic and Ongoing Loss of Biodiversity,” Science 363, no. 6434 (March 29, 2019): 1459–63, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav0379.
9. Andrii P. Gryganskyi et al., “Phylogenetic and Phylogenomic Definition of Rhizopus Species,” G3 Genes|Genomes|Genetics 8, no. 6 (June 1, 2018): 2007–18, https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.118.200235.
10. ibid.
11. Miguel Ángel Naranjo-Ortiz and Toni Gabaldón, “Fungal Evolution: Diversity, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Fungi,” Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 94, no. 6 (December 2019): 2101–37, https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12550.
Chapter 4: Fungal Ecology and Lifestyles
1. Andrea Genre et al., “Unique and Common Traits in Mycorrhizal Symbioses,” Nature Reviews Microbiology 18 (November 2020): 649–60, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-020-0402-3.
2. Björn D. Lindahl and Anders Tunlid, “Ectomycorrhizal Fungi—Potential Organic Matter Decomposers, Yet Not Saprotrophs,” New Phytologist 205, no. 4 (March 2015): 1443–47, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13201.
3. Heidi-Jayne Hawkins et al., “Mycorrhizal Mycelium as a Global Carbon Pool,” Current Biology 33, no. 11 (June 5, 2023): PR560–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.02.027.
4. Thomas W. Crowther, Lynne Boddy, and Thomas Hefin Jones, “Functional and Ecological Consequences of Saprotrophic Fungus–Grazer Interactions,” The ISME Journal 6 (November 2012): 1992–2001, https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2012.53.
5. Franz-Sebastian Krah et al., “Evolutionary Dynamics of Host Specialization in Wood-Decay Fungi,” BMC Evolutionary Biology 18 (August 3, 2018): 119, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-018-1229-7.
6. Jean F. Challacombe et al., “Genomes and Secretomes of Ascomycota Fungi Reveal Diverse Functions in Plant Biomass Decomposition and Pathogenesis,” BMC Genomics 20 (December 12, 2019): 976, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-019-6358-x.
7. Britt A. Bunyard, The Lives of Fungi: A Natural History of Our Planet’s Decomposers (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2022), 109.
8. James J. Worrall, “Wood Decay,” ForestPathology.org, accessed November 15, 2023, https://forestpathology.org/general/wood-decay/.
9. Franz-Sebastian Krah et al., “Evolutionary Dynamics of Host Specialization in Wood-Decay Fungi,” BMC Evolutionary Biology 18 (August 3, 2018): 119, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-018-1229-7.
10. Yu Fukasawa, “Ecological Impacts of Fungal Wood Decay Types: A Review of Current Knowledge and Future Research Directions,” Ecological Research 36 no. 6 (November 2021): 910–31, https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1703.12260.
11. Jesus D. Castaño et al., “Oxidative Damage Control during Decay of Wood by Brown Rot Fungus Using Oxygen Radicals,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 84, no. 22 (November 2018): e01937-18, https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01937-18.
12. Julia Embacher et al., “Wood Decay Fungi and Their Bacterial Interaction Partners in the Built Environment—A Systematic Review on Fungal Bacteria Interactions in Dead Wood and Timber,” Fungal Biology Reviews 45 (September 2023): 100305, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2022.100305.
13. Keith Seifert, The Hidden Kingdom of Fungi: Exploring the Microscopic World in Our Forests, Homes, and Bodies (Vancouver, BC: Greystone Books, 2022),
14. Rohit Shankar Mane, Padmaa Milaap Paarakh, and Ankala Basappa Vedamurthy, “Brief Review on Fungal Endophytes,” International Journal of Secondary Metabolite 5, no. 4 (December 29, 2018): 288–303, https://doi.org/10.21448/ijsm.482798.
15. Noemi Carla Baron and Everlon Cid Rigobelo, “Endophytic Fungi: A Tool for Plant Growth Promotion and Sustainable Agriculture,” Mycology 13, no. 1 (June 2021): 39–55, https://doi.org/10.1080/21501203.2021.1945699
16. David B. Collinge, Birgit Jensen, and Hans Jørgen Lyngs Jørgensen, “Fungal Endophytes in Plants and Their Relationship to Plant Disease,” Current Opinion in Microbiology 69 (October 2022): 102177, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2022.102177.
17. U. Nehls et al., “Fungal Carbohydrate Support in the Ectomycorrhizal Symbiosis: A Review,” Plant Biology 12, no. 2 (March 2010): 292–301, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1438-8677.2009.00312.x.
18. Christine Strullu-Derrien et al., “The Origin and Evolution of Mycorrhizal Symbioses: From Palaeomycology to Phylogenomics,” New Phytologist 220, no. 4 (December 2018): 1012–30, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15076.
19. Emiko K. Stuart and Krista L. Plett, “Digging Deeper: In Search of the Mechanisms of Carbon and Nitrogen Exchange in Ectomycorrhizal Symbioses,” Frontiers in Plant Science 10 (January 14, 2020): 1658, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.01658.
20. Leho Tedersoo and Matthew E. Smith, “Lineages of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Revisited: Foraging Strategies and Novel Lineages Revealed by Sequences from Belowground,” Fungal Biology Reviews 27, no. 3–4 (December 2013): 83–99, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2013.09.001.
21. Heidi-Jayne Hawkins et al., “Mycorrhizal Mycelium as a Global Carbon Pool,” Current Biology 33, no. 11 (June 5, 2023): PR560–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.02.027.
22. Mark C. Brundrett and Leho Tedersoo, “Evolutionary History of Mycorrhizal Symbioses and Global Host Plant Diversity,” New Phytologist 220, no. 4 (December 2018): 1108–15, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14976.
23. Heidi-Jayne Hawkins et al., “Mycorrhizal Mycelium as a Global Carbon Pool,” Current Biology 33, no. 11 (June 5, 2023): PR560–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.02.027.
24. Emiko K. Stuart and Krista L. Plett, “Digging Deeper: In Search of the Mechanisms of Carbon and Nitrogen Exchange in Ectomycorrhizal Symbioses,” Frontiers in Plant Science 10 (January 14, 2020): 1658, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.01658.
25. Heidi-Jayne Hawkins et al., “Mycorrhizal Mycelium as a Global Carbon Pool,” Current Biology 33, no. 11 (June 5, 2023): PR560–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.02.027.
26. John N. Klironomos, “Variation in Plant Response to Native and Exotic Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi,” Ecology 84, no. 9 (September 2003): 2292–2301, https://doi.org/10.1890/02-0413.
27. Catherine N. Jacott, Jeremy Dale Murray, and Christopher J. Ridout, “Trade-Offs in Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis: Disease Resistance, Growth Responses and Perspectives for Crop Breeding,” Agronomy 7, no. 4 (November 16, 2017): 75, https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy7040075.
28. Heidi-Jayne Hawkins et al., “Mycorrhizal Mycelium as a Global Carbon Pool,” Current Biology 33, no. 11 (June 5, 2023): PR560–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.02.027.
29. Xiangying Wei et al., “Ericoid Mycorrhizal Fungi as Biostimulants for Improving Propagation and Production of Ericaceous Plants,” Frontiers in Plant Science 13 (November 16, 2022): 1027390, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1027390.
30. Heidi-Jayne Hawkins et al., “Mycorrhizal Mycelium as a Global Carbon Pool,” Current Biology 33, no. 11 (June 5, 2023): PR560–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.02.027.
31. David Moore, “Ectomycorrhizas,” David Moore’s World of Fungi: Where Mycology Starts, accessed November 15, 2023, https://www.davidmoore.org.uk/assets/mostly_mycology/diane_howarth/ectomycorrhizas.htm.
32. Tomáš Větrovský et al., “A Meta-Analysis of Global Fungal Distribution Reveals Climate-Driven Patterns,” Nature Communications 10, no. 1 (November 13, 2019): 5142, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13164-8.
33. Brian S. Steidinger et al., “Climatic Controls of Decomposition Drive the Global Biogeography of Forest-Tree Symbioses,” Nature 569 (May 16, 2019): 404–8, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1128-0.
34. Patricia Velez et al., “Small-Scale Variation in a Pristine Montane Cloud Forest: Evidence on High Soil Fungal Diversity and Biogeochemical Heterogeneity,” PeerJ 9 (August 11, 2021): e11956, https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11956.
35. Catherine Chagnon, Martin Simard, and Stéphane Boudreau, “Patterns and Determinants of Lichen Abundance and Diversity across a Subarctic to Arctic Latitudinal Gradient,” Journal of Biogeography 48, no. 11 (November 2021): 2742–54, https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.14233.
36. Hans-Peter Grossart et al., “Fungi in Aquatic Ecosystems,” Nature Reviews Microbiology 17 (June 2019): 339–54, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-019-0175-8.
37. Ferris Jabr, “The Social Life of Forests,” New York Times Magazine, December 2, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/02/magazine/tree-communication-mycorrhiza.html.
38. Kevin J. Beiler et al., “Architecture of the Wood-Wide Web: Rhizopogon spp. Genets Link Multiple Douglas-Fir Cohorts,” New Phytologist 185, no. 2 (January 2010): 543–53, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03069.x.
39. Suzanne W. Simard et al., “Net Transfer of Carbon between Ectomycorrhizal Tree Species in the Field,” Nature 388 (August 7, 1997): 579–82, https://doi.org/10.1038/41557.
40. Aline Fernandes Figueiredo, Jens Boy, and Georg Guggenberger, “Common Mycorrhizae Network: A Review of the Theories and Mechanisms behind Underground Interactions,” Frontiers in Fungal Biology 2 (September 30, 2021): 735299, https://doi.org/10.3389/ffunb.2021.735299.
41. Yuan Yuan Song et al., “Interplant Communication of Tomato Plants through Underground Common Mycorrhizal Networks,” PLOS ONE 5, no.10 (October 13, 2010): e13324, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0013324.
42. Justine Karst, Melanie D. Jones, and Jason D. Hoeksema, “Positive Citation Bias and Overinterpreted Results Lead to Misinformation on Common Mycorrhizal Networks in Forests,” Nature Ecology & Evolution 7 (April 2023): 501–11, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-01986-1.
43. Anouk van’t Padje, Gijsbert D. A. Werner, and E. Toby Kiers, “Mycorrhizal Fungi Control Phosphorus Value in Trade Symbiosis with Host Roots When Exposed to Abrupt ‘Crashes’ and ‘Booms’ of Resource Availability,” New Phytologist 229, no. 5 (March 2021): 2933–44, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.17055.
44. E. Toby Kiers et al., “Reciprocal Rewards Stabilize Cooperation in the Mycorrhizal Symbiosis,” Science 333, no. 6044 (August 12, 2011): 880–82, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1208473.
45. Matthew D. Whiteside et al., “Mycorrhizal Fungi Respond to Resource Inequality by Moving Phosphorus from Rich to Poor Patches across Networks,” Current Biology 29, no. 12 (June 17, 2019): 2043–50, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.04.061.
46. Yuichi Sakamoto, “Influences of Environmental Factors on Fruiting Body Induction, Development and Maturation in Mushroom-Forming Fungi,” Fungal Biology Reviews 32, no. 4 (September 2018): 236–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2018.02.003.
47. Jordi F. Pelkmans, Luis G. Lugones, and Han A. B. Wösten, “15 Fruiting Body Formation in Basidiomycetes,” in Growth, Differentiation and Sexuality, ed. Jürgen Wendland, The Mycota, vol. 1, 3rd ed. (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2016), 390, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25844-7_15.
48. Ibid.
49. Johan J. P. Baars et al., “Critical Factors Involved in Primordia Building in Agaricus bisporus: A Review,” Molecules 25, no. 13 (June 29, 2020): 2984, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25132984.
50. Jordi F. Pelkmans, Luis G. Lugones, and Han A. B. Wösten, “15 Fruiting Body Formation in Basidiomycetes,” in Growth, Differentiation and Sexuality, ed. Jürgen Wendland, The Mycota, vol. 1, 3rd ed. (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2016), 390, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25844-7_15.
51. Lucy Turner, “Mushrooms and Light: A Deep Dive into the Fungi’s ‘Eyes,’” Amazing Life.Bio, April 12, 2021, https://www.amazinglife.bio/post/mushrooms-and-light-a-deep-dive-into-the-fungi-s-eyes.
52. Luis M. Corrochano, “Fungal Photobiology: A Synopsis,” IMA Fungus 2, no. 1 (May 3, 2011): 25–28, https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.04.
Chapter 5: Mushroom Foraging 101
1. Simon Egli et al., “Mushroom Picking Does Not Impair Future Harvests—Results of a Long-Term Study in Switzerland,” Biological Conservation 129, no. 2 (April 2006): 271–76, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.10.042.
2. Ibid.
3. David Pilz et al., Ecology and Management of Commercially Harvested Chanterelle Mushrooms, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-576 (Portland, Ore.: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, March 2003), 47, https://www.fs.usda.gov/pnw/pubs/gtr576.pdf.
4. Simon Egli et al., “Mushroom Picking Does Not Impair Future Harvests—Results of a Long-Term Study in Switzerland,” Biological Conservation 129, no. 2 (April 2006): 271–76, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.10.042.
Chapter 6: Mycophagy: The Practice of Eating Mushrooms
1. “Nutrition Comparison Tool,” MyFoodData, accessed November 15, 2023, https://tools.myfooddata.com/nutrition-comparison/169511-781868-167820-171477-169403-168434-168437-168422-168580-169382-168423/.
2. U.S. Department of Agriculture "FoodData Central," Search for "mushrooms," accessed May 28, 2024, https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html.
3. K. S. J. AL-Hussainy and N. K. Z. AL-Fadhly, “Comparison between Protein and Amino Acids of Mushroom Agarieus bispours with Some Kinds of Meat and Meat’s Products,” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 388 (2019): 012059, https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/388/1/012059.
4. David O. Kennedy, “B Vitamins and the Brain: Mechanisms, Dose and Efficacy—A Review,” Nutrients 8, no. 2 (January 27, 2016): 68, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8020068.
5. Maria Dimopoulou et al., "Nutritional Composition and Biological Properties of Sixteen Edible Mushroom Species," Applied Sciences 12, no. 16 (August 12, 2022): 8074, https://doi.org/10.3390/app12168074.
6. Steven H. Zeisel and Kerry-Ann da Costa, “Choline: An Essential Nutrient for Public Health,” Nutrition Reviews 67, no. 11 (November 1, 2009): 615–23, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00246.x.
7. Sanjiv Agarwal and Victor L. Fulgoni III, “Nutritional Impact of Adding a Serving of Mushrooms to USDA Food Patterns—a Dietary Modeling Analysis,” Food & Nutrition Research 65 (February 5, 2021): 5618, https://doi.org/10.29219/fnr.v65.5618.
8. Ohad Manor et al., “Health and Disease Markers Correlate with Gut Microbiome Composition across Thousands of People,” Nature Communications 11 (October 15, 2020): 5206, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18871-1.
9. A. Koivikko and Johannes Savolainen, “Mushroom Allergy,” Allergy 43, no. 1 (January 1988): 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.1988.tb02037.x.
10. Sachin N. Baxi et al., “Exposure and Health Effects of Fungi on Humans,” The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice 4, no. 3 (May 2016): P396–404, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2016.01.008.
11. “NAMA Toxicology Reports and Poison Case Registry,” North American Mycological Association, accessed November 15, 2023, https://namyco.org/toxicology_reports.php.
12. Thiviyani Maruthappu and Zahra Hader, “A Characteristic Rash Caused by Shiitake Mushrooms—an Emerging Concern?,” Clinical Case Reports 9, no. 6 (June 2021): e04181, https://doi.org/10.1002/ccr3.4181.
13. Preston Landers, “Smoked Mushroom Garum Recipe,” CulinaryCrush, November 18, 2022, https://www.culinarycrush.biz/all/smoked-mushroom-garum.
Chapter 7: Fungal Biochemistry
1. Neveen Atta Elhamouly et al., “The Hidden Power of Secondary Metabolites in Plant-Fungi Interactions and Sustainable Phytoremediation,” Frontiers in Plant Science 13 (December 12, 2022): 1044896, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1044896.
2. Taylor R. T. Dagenais and Nancy P. Keller, “Pathogenesis of Aspergillus fumigatus in Invasive Aspergillosis,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews 22, no. 3 (July 2009): 447–65, https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00055-08.
3. Sonu Kumar Yadav et al., “A Mechanistic Review on Medicinal Mushrooms–Derived Bioactive Compounds: Potential Mycotherapy Candidates for Alleviating Neurological Disorders,” Planta Medica 86, no. 16 (November 2020): 1161–75, http://doi.org/10.1055/a-1177-4834.
4. Giuseppe Venturella et al., “Medicinal Mushrooms: Bioactive Compounds, Use, and Clinical Trials,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 2 (January 10, 2021): 634, http://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22020634.
5. Christopher Hobbs, Christopher Hobbs’s Medicinal Mushrooms: The Essential Guide (North Adams, Mass.: Storey, 2021), 25–27.
6. Giuseppe Venturella et al., “Medicinal Mushrooms: Bioactive Compounds, Use, and Clinical Trials,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 2 (January 10, 2021): 634, http://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22020634.
7. Taryn Plumb, Jon Carver, Michael Kersula, Matt McInnis, Mary Bereka, and Will Broussard “Mushroom Extracts: The Mycelium vs. Fruiting Body Dispute,” The Black Trumpet Blog, North Spore, October 14, 2020, https://northspore.com/blogs/the-black-trumpet/mushroom-extracts-the-mycelium-vs-fruiting-body-dispute.
8. Rajendra Prasad et al., “Antioxidant Capacity and Total Phenolics Content of the Fruiting Bodies and Submerged Cultured Mycelia of Sixteen Higher Basidiomycetes Mushrooms from India,” International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 17, no 10 (2015): 933–41, http://doi.org/10.1615/IntJMedMushrooms.v17.i10.30.
9. Ralf G. Berger et al., “Mycelium vs. Fruiting Bodies of Edible Fungi—A Comparison of Metabolites,” Microorganisms 10 (July 8, 2022): 1379, https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10071379.
10. I-Chen Li et al., “Neurohealth Properties of Hericium erinaceus Mycelia Enriched with Erinacines,” Behavioural Neurology 2018 (May 21, 2018): 1–10: 5802634, http://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5802634.
11. National Cancer Institute, “Medicinal Mushrooms (PDQ® )–Health Professional Version,” National Institutes of Health, last modified January 13, 2023, https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/hp/mushrooms-pdq.
12. “Warning Letter: Mushroom Revival, Inc., MARCS-CMS 610361—December 01, 2020,” US Food and Drug Administration, last modified December 8, 2020, https://www.fda.gov/inspections-compliance-enforcement-and-criminal-winvestigations/warning-letters/mushroom-revival-inc-610361-12012020.
13. Brody Mallard et al., “Synergistic Immuno-Modulatory Activity in Human Macrophages of a Medicinal Mushroom Formulation Consisting of Reishi, Shiitake and Maitake,” PLOS ONE 14, no. 11 (November 7, 2019): e0224740, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224740.
14. A. R. Bandani et al., “Production of Efrapeptins by Tolypocladium Species and Evaluation of Their Insecticidal and Antimicrobial Properties,” Mycological Research 104, no. 5 (May 2000): 537–44, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0953756299001859.
15. Benoit Briard et al., “Fungal Cell Wall Components Modulate Our Immune System,” The Cell Surface 7 (December 2021): 100067, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcsw.2021.100067.
16. Hidde P. van Steenwijk, Aalt Bast, and Alie de Boer, “Immunomodulating Effects of Fungal Beta-Glucans: From Traditional Use to Medicine,” Nutrients 13, no. 4 (April 17, 2021): 1333, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13041333.
17. Alena G. Guggenheim, Kirsten M. Wright, and Heather L. Zwickey, “Immune Modulation from Five Major Mushrooms: Application to Integrative Oncology,” Integrative Medicine (Encinitas) 13, no. 1 (February 2014): 32–44, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26770080/.
18. Lian-di Zhou et al., “The Shiitake Mushroom–Derived Immuno-Stimulant Lentinan Protects against Murine Malaria Blood-Stage Infection by Evoking Adaptive Immune-Responses,” International Immunopharmacology 9, no. 4 (April 2009): 455–62, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2009.01.010.
19. Ibid.
20. Sevki Hakan Eren et al., “Mushroom Poisoning: Retrospective Analysis of 294 Cases,” Clinics 65, no. 5 (May 2010): 491–96, https://doi.org/10.1590/S1807-59322010000500006.
21. Hikoto Ohta et al., “Toxicological Analysis of Satratoxins, the Main Toxins in the Mushroom Trichoderma cornu-damae, in Human Serum and Mushroom Samples by Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry,” Forensic Toxicology 39 (January 2021): 101–13, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11419-020-00549-4.
22. Hussein S. Hussein and Jeffrey M. Brasel, “Toxicity, Metabolism, and Impact of Mycotoxins on Humans and Animals,” Toxicology 167, no. 2 (October 15, 2001): 101–34, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0300-483X(01)00471-1.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Joan W. Bennett and Maren A. Klich, “Mycotoxins,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews 16, no. 3 (July 2003): 497–516, https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.16.3.497-516.2003.
26. World Health Organization, Mycotoxins Fact Sheet, October 2, 2023, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mycotoxins.
27. Julia R. Barrett, “Mycotoxins: Of Molds and Maladies,” Environmental Health Perspectives 108, no. 1 (January 2000): A20–3, https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.108-a20.
28. Thomas Miedaner and Hartwig H. Geiger, “Biology, Genetics, and Management of Ergot (Claviceps spp.) in Rye, Sorghum, and Pearl Millet,” Toxins 7 (February 25, 2015): 659–78, https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins7030659.
29. Darina Pickova et al., “Aflatoxins: History, Significant Milestones, Recent Data on Their Toxicity and Ways to Mitigation,” Toxins 13 (June 3, 2021): 399, https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13060399.
30. Diego P. Morgavi and Ronald T. Riley, “An Historical Overview of Field Disease Outbreaks Known or Suspected to Be Caused by Consumption of Feeds Contaminated with Fusarium Toxins,” Animal Feed Science and Technology 137, no. 3–4 (October 1, 2007): 201–12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2007.06.002.
31. US Food and Drug Administration, “Mycotoxins,” last modified July 21, 2022, https://www.fda.gov/food/natural-toxins-food/mycotoxins.
Chapter 8: Fungal Intelligence
1. Yu Fukasawa, Melanie Savoury, and Lynne Boddy, “Ecological Memory and Relocation Decisions in Fungal Mycelial Networks: Responses to Quantity and Location of New Resources,” The ISME Journal 14 (February 2020): 380–88, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-019-0536-3.
2. Kristin Aleklett and Lynne Boddy, “Fungal Behaviour: A New Frontier in Behavioural Ecology,” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 36, no. 9 (September 2021): P787–96, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2021.05.006.
3. Christina Braunsdorf, Daniela Mailänder-Sánchez, and Martin M. Schaller, “Fungal Sensing of Host Environment,” Cellular Microbiology 18, no. 9 (September 2016): 1188–1200, https://doi.org/10.1111/cmi.12610.
4. Alistair J. P. Brown, Daniel E. Larcombe, and Arnab Pradhan, “Thoughts on the Evolution of Core Environmental Responses in Yeasts,” Fungal Biology 124, no. 5 (May 2020): 475–81, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2020.01.003.
5. Sudha Bind et al., “Epigenetic Modification: A Key Tool for Secondary Metabolite Production in Microorganisms,” Frontiers in Microbiology 13 (April 13, 2022): 784109, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.784109.
6. Caudron Fabrice, “Mnemons: Memory through Prion Proteins,” University of Montpellier, originally published January 27, 2022, https://www.umontpellier.fr/en/articles/les-mnemons-quand-la-memoire-passe-par-les-proteines-prions.
7. Tatiana A. Chernova, Keith D. Wilkinson, and Yury O. Chernoff, “Physiological and Environmental Control of Yeast Prions,” FEMS Microbiology Reviews 38, no. 2 (March 2014): 326–44, https://doi.org/10.1111/1574-6976.12053.
8. Daniel F. Jarosz et al., “Cross-Kingdom Chemical Communication Drives a Heritable, Mutually Beneficial Prion-Based Transformation of Metabolism,” Cell 158, no. 5 (August 28, 2014): P1083–93, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.07.025.
9. Fabien Cottier and Fritz A. Mühlschlegel, “Communication in Fungi,” International Journal of Microbiology 2012 (January 15, 2012): 351832, https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/351832.
10. Vito Valiante, “The Cell Wall Integrity Signaling Pathway and Its Involvement in Secondary Metabolite Production,” Journal of Fungi 3, no. 4 (December 6, 2017): 68, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof3040068.
11. Ibid.
12. Marcus Roper and Emilie Dressaire, “Fungal Biology: Bidirectional Communication across Fungal Networks,” Current Biology 29, no. 4 (February 18, 2019): R130–32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.01.011.
13. Stefan Olsson and B. S. Hansson, “Action Potential–Like Activity Found in Fungal Mycelia Is Sensitive to Stimulation,” Naturwissenschaften 82 (January 1995): 30–31, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01167867.
14. Andrew Adamatzky, “Language of Fungi Derived from Their Electrical Spiking Activity,” Royal Society Open Science 9, no. 4 (April 6, 2022): 211926, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211926.
15. Yu Fukasawa et al., “Electrical Potentials in the Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Laccaria bicolor after a Rainfall Event,” Fungal Ecology 63 (June 2023): 101229, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funeco.2023.101229.
16. Gordon A. Walker et al., “Monitoring Site-Specific Fermentation Outcomes via Oxidation Reduction Potential and UV-Vis Spectroscopy to Characterize ‘Hidden’ Parameters of Pinot Noir Wine Fermentations,” Molecules 26, no. 16 (August 5, 2021): 4748, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26164748.
17. Arshad Mehmood et al., “Fungal Quorum-Sensing Molecules and Inhibitors with Potential Antifungal Activity: A Review,” Molecules 24, no. 10 (May 21, 2019): 1950, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24101950.
18. Ilaria Mannazzu et al., “Yeast Killer Toxins: From Ecological Significance to Application,” Critical Reviews in Biotechnology 39, no. 5 (April 2019): 603–17, https://doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2019.1601679.
19. Lynne Boddy, “Interspecific Combative Interactions between Wood-Decaying Basidiomycetes,” FEMS Microbiology Ecology 31, no. 3 (March 2000): 185–94, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6941.2000.tb00683.x.
20. Amanda C. Swanson et al., “Welcome to the Atta World: A Framework for Understanding the Effects of Leaf-Cutter Ants on Ecosystem Functions,” Functional Ecology 33, no. 8 (August 2019): 1386–99, https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13319.
21. Soumitra Paloi et al., “Termite Mushrooms (Termitomyces), a Potential Source of Nutrients and Bioactive Compounds Exhibiting Human Health Benefits: A Review,” Journal of Fungi 9, no. 1 (January 13, 2023): 112, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9010112.
22. Alie and Micah Caldwell of Neuro Transmissions, "The Stoned Ape Theory Is Bad" @neurotransmissions on YouTube, Oct 20, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FrYZzCtCZEs
23. Patrick C. Seed, “The Human Mycobiome,” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 5, no. 5 (May 2015): a019810, https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a019810.
Chapter 9: Envisioning a Fungal Future
1. John Green, The Anthropocene Reviewed: Essays on a Human-Centered Planet (New York: Penguin, 2021), whole book.
2. Luke Kemp et al., “Climate Endgame: Exploring Catastrophic Climate Change Scenarios,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 34 (August 1, 2022): e2108146119, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2108146119.
3. FAO and ITPS, Status of the World’s Soil Resources: Main Report (Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils, 2015), 4–8, https://www.fao.org/3/i5199e/i5199e.pdf.
4. Shamsudheen Mangalassery et al., “To What Extent Can Zero Tillage Lead to a Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Temperate Soils?,” Scientific Reports 4 (April 4, 2014): 4586, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep04586.
5. Muhammad Shehryar Sabir et al., “Comparative Effect of Fertilization Practices on Soil Microbial Diversity and Activity: An Overview,” Current Microbiology 78 (October 2021): 3644–55, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-021-02634-2.
6. Shamsudheen Mangalassery et al., “To What Extent Can Zero Tillage Lead to a Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Temperate Soils?,” Scientific Reports 4 (April 4, 2014): 4586, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep04586.
7. Muhammad Shehryar Sabir et al., “Comparative Effect of Fertilization Practices on Soil Microbial Diversity and Activity: An Overview,” Current Microbiology 78 (October 2021): 3644–55, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-021-02634-2.
8. Belén Cárceles Rodríguez et al., “Conservation Agriculture as a Sustainable System for Soil Health: A Review,” Soil Systems 6, no. 4 (December 2022): 87, https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems6040087.
9. Rattan Lal, “Enhancing Ecosystem Services with No-Till,” Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 28, no. 2 (June 2013): 102–14, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170512000452.
10. Bamisope Steve Bamisile et al., “Model Application of Entomopathogenic Fungi as Alternatives to Chemical Pesticides: Prospects, Challenges, and Insights for Next-Generation Sustainable Agriculture,” Frontiers in Plant Science 12 (September 30, 2021): 741804, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.741804.
11. Ana Marion Pérez-Chávez, Leopoldo Mayer, and Edgardo Albertó, “Mushroom Cultivation and Biogas Production: A Sustainable Reuse of Organic Resources,” Energy for Sustainable Development 50 (June 2019): 50–60, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2019.03.002.
12. GRACE Communications Foundation, “The Water Footprint of Food,” FoodPrint, last modified April 5, 2023, https://foodprint.org/issues/the-water-footprint-of-food/.
13. Sahithya K. et al., “Remediation Potential of Mushrooms and Their Spent Substrate against Environmental Contaminants: An Overview,” Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 42 (July 2022): 102323, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2022.102323.
14. Daniel Grimm and Han A. B. Wösten, "Mushroom Cultivation in the Circular Economy," Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 102 (July 19, 2018): 7795–7803, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-018-9226-8.
15. Emna Zeghal et al., “The Potential Role of Marine Fungi in Plastic Degradation—A Review,” Frontiers in Marine Science 8 (November 29, 2021): 738877, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.738877.
16. Munuru Srikanth et al., “Biodegradation of Plastic Polymers by Fungi: A Brief Review,” Bioresources and Bioprocessing 9 (April 8, 2022): 42, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-022-00532-4.
17. María Cecilia Medaura et al., “Bioaugmentation of Native Fungi, an Efficient Strategy for the Bioremediation of an Aged Industrially Polluted Soil with Heavy Hydrocarbons,” Frontiers in Microbiology 12 (March 31, 2021): 626436, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.626436.
18. Zachary Schultzhaus et al., “Transcriptomic Analysis Reveals the Relationship of Melanization to Growth and Resistance to Gamma Radiation in Cryptococcus neoformans,” Environmental Microbiology 21, no. 8 (August 2019): 2613–28, https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.14550.
19. Ekaterina Dadachova and Arturo Casadevall, “Ionizing Radiation: How Fungi Cope, Adapt, and Exploit with the Help of Melanin,” Current Opinion in Microbiology 11, no. 6 (December 2008): 525–31, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2008.09.013.
20. Zhugui Wen et al., “Effects of Pisolithus tinctorius and Cenococcum geophilum Inoculation on Pine in Copper-Contaminated Soil to Enhance Phytoremediation,” International Journal of Phytoremediation 19, no. 4 (2017): 387–94, https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2016.1244155.
21. Simon Vandelook et al., “Current State and Future Prospects of Pure Mycelium Materials,” Fungal Biology and Biotechnology 8 (December 20, 2021): 20, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40694-021-00128-1.
22. J. Lelieveld et al., “Effects of Fossil Fuel and Total Anthropogenic Emission Removal on Public Health and Climate,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 15 (April 9, 2019): 7192–97, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1819989116.
23. Jan Lewandrowski et al., “The Greenhouse Gas Benefits of Corn Ethanol—Assessing Recent Evidence,” Biofuels 11, no. 3 (March 25, 2019): 361–75, https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2018.1546488.
24. Jason Hill, “The Sobering Truth about Corn Ethanol,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 11 (March 2022): e2200997119, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2200997119.
25. Gholamreza Salehi Jouzani, Mortaza Aghbashlo, and Meisam Tabatabaei, “Biofuels: Types, Promises, Challenges, and Role of Fungi,” in Fungi in Fuel Biotechnology, ed. Gholamreza Salehi Jouzani, Meisam Tabatabaei, and Mortaza Aghbashlo, Fungal Biology (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2020), 1-14 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44488-4_1.
26. “Grow Mushrooms at Home,” North American Mycological Association, accessed November 15, 2023, https://namyco.org/growing_mushrooms_at_home.php.
Chapter 10: Our Responsibility to Nature
1. Simon Egli et al., “Mushroom Picking Does Not Impair Future Harvests—Results of a Long-Term Study in Switzerland,” Biological Conservation 129, no. 2 (April 2006): 271–76, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.10.042.
2. FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Key Findings (Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2020), 1–16, https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8753en.
3. Craig Welch, “Why Old-Growth Forests Matter,” National Geographic, April 22, 2022, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/why-old-growth-forests-matter.
4. Petr Kohout et al., “Clearcutting Alters Decomposition Processes and Initiates Complex Restructuring of Fungal Communities in Soil and Tree Roots,” The ISME Journal 12 (March 2018): 692–703, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-017-0027-3.
5. Kate Morgan, “The Demise and Potential Revival of the American Chestnut,” Sierra, February 25, 2021, https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/2021-2-march-april/feature/demise-and-potential-revival-american-chestnut.
6. Cleora J. D’Arcy, “Dutch Elm Disease,” The American Phytopathological Society (APS), accessed November 15, 2023, https://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/disandpath/fungalasco/pdlessons/Pages/DutchElm.aspx.
7. Charlotte J. Alster, Steven D. Allison, and Kathleen K. Treseder, “Carbon Budgets for Soil and Plants Respond to Long-Term Warming in an Alaskan Boreal Forest,” Biogeochemistry 150 (October 2020): 345–53, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-020-00697-0.
8. Benjamin E. Wolfe, Michael Kuo, and Anne Pringle, “Amanita thiersii Is a Saprotrophic Fungus Expanding Its Range in the United States,” Mycologia 104, no. 1 (January 20, 2012): 22–33, https://doi.org/10.3852/11-056.
9. The Global Fungal Red List Initiative, website home page, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), accessed November 15, 2023, https://redlist.info/en/iucn/welcome.
10. The Global Fungal Red List Initiative, Bridgeoporus nobilissimus, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), accessed November 15, 2023, https://redlist.info/iucn/species_view/436295.
11. Francisco Kuhar, Giuliana Furci, et al., "Delimitation of Funga as a Valid Term for the Diversity of Fungal Communities: The Fauna, Flora & Funga Proposal (FF&F)," IMA Fungus 9 (December 1, 2018): 71–74, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03449441.
12. The Global Fungal Red List Initiative, “Guidelines for the Global Fungal Red-Listing Initiative,” accessed November 15, 2023, 1–7, https://redlist.info/assets/files/Guidelines.pdf.
13. Andi Bruce, “Tracing the Naturalization of Golden Oysters in the United States,” Andi Bruce, personal website, accessed November 15, 2023, https://andibruce.wordpress.com/golden-oysters/.
Part Two:
How to Identify Mushrooms
1. Torda Varga et al., “Megaphylogeny Resolves Global Patterns of Mushroom Evolution,” Nature Ecology & Evolution 3 (April 2019): 668–78, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0834-1.
2. “How Nanopore Sequencing Works,” Oxford Nanopore Technologies, accessed November 15, 2023, https://nanoporetech.com/platform/technology.
3. "1000 Fungal Genomes Project," accessed May 30, 2024, https://1000.fungalgenomes.org/.
Spotlight on Mushroom Morphology
4. Ilia Brondz, “FUNGI | Classification of the Basidiomycota,” in Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology, 2nd edition (April 14, 2014), 20–29, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384730-0.00139-7.
5. Jacob Kalichman, “Agarics & Agaricales,” Agaric.us, last modified October 20, 2023, https://agaric.us/.
6. Sergio Pérez Gorjón, “Genera of Corticioid Fungi: Keys, Nomenclature and Taxonomy,” Studies in Fungi 5, no. 1 (June 9, 2020): 125–309, https://doi.org/10.5943/sif/5/1/12.
Edible Mushrooms
1. David Meigs Beyer and Vija L. Wilkinson, “Seeding Substrate and Management of Growing Agaricus bisporus,” PennState Extension, College of Agricultural Sciences, last modified March 6, 2023, https://extension.psu.edu/seeding-substrate-and-management-of-growing-agaricus-bisporus.
2. Vera Schulzová et al., “Agaritine Content of 53 Agaricus Species Collected from Nature,” Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 26, no. 1 (2009): 82–93, https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030802039903.
3. Lin Zhang et al., “RNA-Seq-Based High-Resolution Linkage Map Reveals the Genetic Architecture of Fruiting Body Development in Shiitake Mushroom, Lentinula edodes,” Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal 19 (March 22, 2021): P1641–53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csbj.2021.03.016.
4. Taisei Shibata et al., “Isolation and Characterization of a Novel Two-Component Hemolysin, Erylysin A and B, from an Edible Mushroom, Pleurotus eryngii,” Toxicon 56, no. 8 (December 2010): 1436–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.08.010.
5. Iwona Adamska, “The Possibility of Using Sulphur Shelf Fungus (Laetiporus sulphureus) in the Food Industry and in Medicine—A Review,” Foods 12, no. 7 (April 5, 2023): 1539, https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12071539.
6. The Global Fungal Red List Initiative, “Grifola frondosa,” International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), accessed November 15, 2023, https://redlist.info/iucn/species_view/362177/.
7. Meng Zhou et al., “Two New Species of Fistulina (Agaricales, Basidiomycota) from the Northern Hemisphere,” Frontiers in Microbiology 13 (December 8, 2022): 1063038, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1063038.
8. Neha Sharma et al., “Medicinal, Nutritional, and Nutraceutical Potential of Sparassis crispa s. lat.: A Review,” IMA Fungus 13, no. 8 (May 6, 2022), https://doi.org/10.1186/s43008-022-00095-1.
9. Paul Stamets, Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World (Emeryville, Calif.: Ten Speed Press, 2005), 294-95.
10. The Global Fungal Red List Initiative, “Hericium erinaceus,” International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), accessed November 15, 2023, https://redlist.info/iucn/species_view/356812/.
11. Keaton Tremble, Joseph Ivan Hoffman, and Bryn T. M. Dentinger, “Contrasting Continental Patterns of Adaptive Population Divergence in the Holarctic Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Boletus edulis,” New Phytologist 237, no. 1 (January 2023): 295–309, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.18521.
12. David Arora and Jonathan L. Frank, “Clarifying the Butter Boletes: A New Genus, Butyriboletus, Is Established to Accommodate Boletus sect. Appendiculati, and Six New Species Are Described,” Mycologia 106, no. 3 (May 2014): 464–80, https://doi.org/10.3852/13-052.
13. Jiaxing Wang et al., “Contribution of Suillus variegatus to the Ecological Restoration of 10-Year-Old Pinus tabuliformis on the Loess Plateau,” Applied Soil Ecology 167 (November 2021): 104044, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2021.104044.
14. Johann N. Bruhn and Milton D. Soderberg, “Allergic Contact Dermatitis Caused by Mushrooms: A Case Report and Literature Review,” Mycopathologia 115 (September 1991): 191–95, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00462225.
15. Michael W. Beug, “NAMA Toxicology Committee Report for 2006: Recent Mushroom Poisonings in North America,” McIlvainea 17, no. 1 (Spring 2007): 63–72, https://fungimag.com/archives/Beug%202006%20ToxReport.pdf.
16. Rachel A. Swenie, Timothy J. Baroni, and P. Brandon Matheny, “Six New Species and Reports of Hydnum (Cantharellales) from Eastern North America,” MycoKeys 42 (November 30, 2018): 35–72, https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.42.27369.
17. Jerzy Falandysz et al., “Mercury Bio-Concentration by Puffballs (Lycoperdon perlatum) and Evaluation of Dietary Intake Risks,” Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 89 (August 18, 2012): 759–63, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-012-0788-3.
18. Wikipedia, s.v. “Hypomyces lactifluorum,” last modified August 9, 2023, 22:54, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypomyces_lactifluorum#cite_note-Illinois-5.
19. Craig L. Schmitt and Michael L. Tatum, “The Malheur National Forest: Location of the World’s Largest Living Organism [The Humongous Fungus]” (Portland, Ore.: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, 2008), 4, https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fsbdev3_033146.pdf.
20. Ching-Han Lee et al., “Sensory Cilia as the Achilles Heel of Nematodes When Attacked by Carnivorous Mushrooms,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 11 (March 17, 2020): 6014–22, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1918473117.
21. Se Chul Chun et al., “Mycoremediation of PCBs by Pleurotus ostreatus: Possibilities and Prospects,” Applied Sciences 9, no. 19 (October 8, 2019): 4185, https://doi.org/10.3390/app9194185.
22. Jeff Renaud, “Mushrooms Serve as ‘Main Character’ in Most Ecosystems,” Phys.org, August 25, 2022, https://phys.org/news/2022-08-mushrooms-main-character-ecosystems.html.
23. Rosanne A. Healy et al., “Endophytism and Endolichenism in Pezizomycetes: The Exception or the Rule?,” New Phytologist 233, no. 5 (March 2022): 1974–83, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.17886.
24. Isabel Hicks, “‘ A Lot We Don’t Know’: Montana Mycologists, Foragers Talk Morel Mushrooms Following Deaths This Spring,” Bozeman Daily Chronicle, September 1, 2023, https://www.bozemandailychronicle.com/news/business/a-lot-we-dont-know-montana-mycologists-foragers-talk-morel-mushrooms-following-deaths-this-spring/article_372dbccc-41db-11ee-a63e-dfb2453e05e8.html.
25. Ahmed M. Mustafa et al., “An Overview on Truffle Aroma and Main Volatile Compounds,” Molecules 25, no. 24 (December 2, 2020): 5948, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25245948.
26. Nic Fleming, “Fungal Findings Excite Truffle Researchers and Gastronomes,” Nature, August 5, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-02118-8.
27. Ferzana Islam and Shoji Ohga, “The Response of Fruit Body Formation on Tricholoma matsutake In Situ Condition by Applying Electric Pulse Stimulator,” International Scholarly Research Notices 2012 (August 5, 2012): 462724, https://doi.org/10.5402/2012/462724.
Toxic Mushrooms
1. Maxwell Moor-Smith, Raymond Li, and Omar Ahmad, “The World’s Most Poisonous Mushroom, Amanita phalloides, Is Growing in BC,” British Columbia Medical Journal 61, no. 1 (January–February 2019): 20–24, https://bcmj.org/articles/worlds-most-poisonous-mushroom-amanita-phalloides-growing-bc.
2. B. Zane Horowitz and Michael J. Moss, “Amatoxin Mushroom Toxicity,” in StatPearls [Internet] (Treasure Island, Fla.: StatPearls, last modified June 26, 2023), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431052/.
3. Ivan Amato, "Complexity to Live By," Chemical & Engineering News 84, no. 47 (November 20, 2006), https://cen.acs.org/articles/84/i47/Complexity-Live.html.
4. Anna Moshnikova et al., “Antiproliferative Effect of pHLIP-Amanitin,” Biochemistry 52, no. 7 (February 8, 2013): 1171–78, https://doi.org/10.1021/bi301647y.
5. Kathy T. Vo et al., “Amanita phalloides Mushroom Poisonings—Northern California, December 2016,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 66, no. 21 (June 2, 2017): 549–53, https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6621a1.
6. Yen-Wen Wang et al., “Invasive Californian Death Caps Develop Mushrooms Unisexually and Bisexually,” Nature Communications 14 (October 24, 2023): 6560, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-42317-z.
7. Alden C. Dirks et al., “Not All Bad: Gyromitrin Has a Limited Distribution in the False Morels as Determined by a New Ultra High–Performance Liquid Chromatography Method,” Mycologia 115, no. 1 (December 2022): 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.2022.2146473.
8. Emmeline Lagrange et al., “An Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Hot Spot in the French Alps Associated with Genotoxic Fungi,” Journal of the Neurological Sciences 427, no. 6 (August 15, 2021): 117558, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2021.117558.
9. R. Michael Sgambelluri et al., “Profiling of Amatoxins and Phallotoxins in the Genus Lepiota by Liquid Chromatography Combined with UV Absorbance and Mass Spectrometry,” Toxins 6, no. 8 (August 5, 2014): 2336–47, https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins6082336.
10. Deman Najar et al., “Pharmacokinetic Properties of the Nephrotoxin Orellanine in Rats,” Toxins 10, no. 8 (August 17, 2018): 333, https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10080333.
11. H. Oubrahim et al., “Novel Methods for Identification and Quantification of the Mushroom Nephrotoxin Orellanine. Thin-Layer Chromatography and Electrophoresis Screening of Mushrooms with Electron Spin Resonance Determination of the Toxin,” Journal of Chromatography A 758, no. 1 (January 10, 1997): 145–57, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(96)00695-4.
12. Rachid Ennamany et al., “Mode of Action of Bolesatine, a Cytotoxic Glycoprotein from Boletus satanas Lenz. Mechanistic Approaches,” Toxicology 100, no. 1–3 (June 26, 1995): 51–55, https://doi.org/10.1016/0300-483X(95)03058-N.
13. Jiří Patočka, “Bolesatine, a Toxic Protein from the Mushroom Rubroboletus satanas,” Military Medical Science Letters 87, no. 1 (March 9, 2018): 14–20, https://doi.org/10.31482/mmsl.2018.003.
14. Nicolaas G. J. Jaspers et al., “Anti-tumour Compounds Illudin S and Irofulven Induce DNA Lesions Ignored by Global Repair and Exclusively Processed by Transcription- and Replication-Coupled Repair Pathways,” DNA Repair 1, no. 12 (December 2002): 1027–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1568-7864(02)00166-0.
15. Philip Weinstein et al., “Bioluminescence in the Ghost Fungus Omphalotus nidiformis Does Not Attract Potential Spore Dispersing Insects,” IMA Fungus 7 (December 2016): 229–34, https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2016.07.02.01.
16. Damien Blaudez, Bernard Botton, and Michel Chalot, “Cadmium Uptake and Subcellular Compartmentation in the Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Paxillus involutus,” Microbiology 146, no. 5 (May 1, 2000): 1109–17, https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-146-5-1109.
17. Kumiko Suzuki, Haruhiro Fujimoto, and Mikio Yamazaki, “The Toxic Principles of Naematoloma fasciculare,” Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 31, no. 6 (June 25, 1983): 2176–78, https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.31.2176.
18. Pawel Kosentka et al., “Evolution of the Toxins Muscarine and Psilocybin in a Family of Mushroom-Forming Fungi,” PLOS ONE 8, no. 5 (May 23, 2013): e64646, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0064646.
19. Melvyn Gill and Richard J. Strauch, “Constituents of Agaricus xanthodermus Genevier: The First Naturally Endogenous Azo Compound and Toxic Phenolic Metabolites,” Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C 39, no. 11–12 (June 2, 2014): 1027–29, https://doi.org/10.1515/znc-1984-11-1203.
20. Mateja Lumpert and Samo Kreft, “Catching Flies with Amanita muscaria: Traditional Recipes from Slovenia and Their Efficacy in the Extraction of Ibotenic Acid,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 187 (July 2016): 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.009.
21. Michael James Winkelman, “Amanita muscaria: Fly Agaric History, Mythology and Pharmacology,” Journal of Psychedelic Studies 6, no. 1 (June 23, 2022): 1–4, https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2022.00216.
22. Jerzy Falandysz, Małgorzata Mędyk , and Roland Treu, “Bio-Concentration Potential and Associations of Heavy Metals in Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam. from Northern Regions of Poland,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research 25 (September 2018): 25190–206, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-018-2603-0.
23. Michael W. Beug, Marilyn Shaw, and Kenneth W. Cochran, “Thirty-Plus Years of Mushroom Poisoning: Summary of the Approximately 2,000 Reports in the NAMA Case Registry,” McIlvainea 16, no. 2 (Fall 2006): 47–68, https://namyco.org/docs/Poisonings30year.pdf.
24. Zushang Su et al., “Chemical Constituents from the Fruit Body of Chlorophyllum molybdites,” Natural Product Communications 8, no. 9 (September 2013): 1227–28, https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X1300800910.
25. Christophe Calvaruso et al., “Influence of Forest Trees on the Distribution of Mineral Weathering–Associated Bacterial Communities of the Scleroderma citrinum Mycorrhizosphere,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 76, no. 14 (July 15, 2010): 4780–87, https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.03040-09.
Functional Fungi
1. Xiaoxiao Liu et al., “A Review on Linking the Medicinal Functions of Mushroom Prebiotics with Gut Microbiota,” International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 22, no 10 (2020): 943–51, https://doi.org/10.1615/intjmedmushrooms.2020035799.
2. Sujogya Kumar Panda and Walter Luyten, “Medicinal Mushrooms: Clinical Perspective and Challenges,” Drug Discovery Today 27, no. 2 (February 2022): 636–51, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2021.11.017.
3. Shuting Chang and John Buswell. “Medicinal Mushrooms: Past, Present and Future,” Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology 184 (February 27, 2022): 1–27, https://doi.org/10.1007/10_2021_197.
4. National Cancer Institute, “Medicinal Mushrooms (PDQ® )–Health Professional Version,” National Institutes of Health, last modified January 13, 2023, https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/hp/mushrooms-pdq.
5. Md Faruque Ahmad, “Ganoderma lucidum: Persuasive Biologically Active Constituents and Their Health Endorsement,” Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 107 (November 2018): 507–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2018.08.036.
6. Chia-Che Tsai et al., “Oligosaccharide and Peptidoglycan of Ganoderma lucidum Activate the Immune Response in Human Mononuclear Cells,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60, no. 11 (March 21, 2012): 2830–37, http://doi.org/10.1021/jf3000339.
7. Gülsen Tel-Çayan et al., “Phytochemical Investigation, Antioxidant and Anticholinesterase Activities of Ganoderma adspersum,” Industrial Crops and Products 76 (December 15, 2015): 749–54, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.07.042.
8. Katarzyna Sułkowska-Ziaja et al., “A Review of Chemical Composition and Bioactivity Studies of the Most Promising Species of Ganoderma spp.,” Diversity 15 (July 25, 2023): 882, https://doi.org/10.3390/d15080882.
9. Solomon Habtemariam, “Trametes versicolor (Synn. Coriolus versicolor) Polysaccharides in Cancer Therapy: Targets and Efficacy,” Biomedicines 8, no. 5 (May 2020): 135, https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines8050135.
10. Zhicheng He et al., “Polysaccharide-Peptide from Trametes versicolor: The Potential Medicine for Colorectal Cancer Treatment,” Biomedicines 10,11 2841 (November 7, 2022), https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10112841.
11. Paul Stamets, “Trametes versicolor (Turkey Tail Mushrooms) and the Treatment of Breast Cancer,” Global Advances in Health and Medicine 1,5 (November 1, 2012): 20, https://doi.org/10.7453/gahmj.2012.1.5.007
12. Carolyn J. Torkelson et al., “Phase 1 Clinical Trial of Trametes versicolor in Women with Breast Cancer,” International Scholarly Research Notices 2012 (May 30, 2012): 251632, https://doi.org/10.5402/2012/251632.
13. National Cancer Institute, “Medicinal Mushrooms (PDQ® )–Health Professional Version,” National Institutes of Health, last modified January 13, 2023, https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/hp/mushrooms-pdq.
14. Mendel Friedman, “Chemistry, Nutrition, and Health-Promoting Properties of Hericium erinaceus (Lion’s Mane) Mushroom Fruiting Bodies and Mycelia and Their Bioactive Compounds,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 63, no. 32 (August 5, 2015): 7108–23, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02914.
15. Christopher Hobbs, Christopher Hobbs’s Medicinal Mushrooms: The Essential Guide (North Adams, Mass.: Storey, 2021), 97–98.
16. Bing-Ji Ma et al., “Hericenones and Erinacines: Stimulators of Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) Biosynthesis in Hericium erinaceus,” Mycology 1, no. 2 (April 29, 2010): 92–98, https://doi.org/10.1080/21501201003735556.
17. I-Chen Li et al., “Prevention of Early Alzheimer’s Disease by Erinacine A–Enriched Hericium erinaceus Mycelia Pilot Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Study,” Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 12 (June 2020): 155, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2020.00155.
18. Chao Liu et al., “Chemical Constituents from Inonotus obliquus and Their Biological Activities,” Journal of Natural Products, 77, no. 1 (December 20, 2013): 35–41, https://doi.org/10.1021/np400552w.
19. Konrad A. Szychowski et al., “Inonotus obliquus—from Folk Medicine to Clinical Use,” Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine 11, no. 4 (July 2021): 293–302, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2020.08.003.
20. Ibid.
21. Antoine Géry et al., “Chaga (Inonotus obliquus), a Future Potential Medicinal Fungus in Oncology? A Chemical Study and a Comparison of the Cytotoxicity against Human Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells (A549) and Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells (BEAS-2B),” Integrative Cancer Therapies 17, no. 3 (September 2018): 568–1008, https://doi.org/10.1177/1534735418757912.
22. Yuko Kikuchi et al., “Chaga Mushroom–Induced Oxalate Nephropathy,” Clinical Nephrology 81 (June 2014): 440–44, https://doi.org/10.5414/CN107655.
23. Dapeng Ju et al., “Chemical Perturbations Reveal That RUVBL2 Regulates the Circadian Phase in Mammals,” Science Translational Medicine 12, no. 542 (May 6, 2020): eaba0769, https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aba0769.
24. Bai Li et al., “3’-Deoxyadenosine (Cordycepin) Produces a Rapid and Robust Antidepressant Effect via Enhancing Prefrontal AMPA Receptor Signaling Pathway,” International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 19, no. 4 (October 2016): pyv112, https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyv112.
25. Donald I. Abrams et al., “Antihyperlipidemic Effects of Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushrooms) in HIV-Infected Individuals Taking Antiretroviral Therapy,” BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11 (August 10, 2011): 60, https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-11-60.
26. Mohamad Hamdi Zainal Abidin, Noorlidah Abdullah, and Nurhayati Zainal Abidin, “Therapeutic Properties of Pleurotus Species (Oyster Mushrooms) for Atherosclerosis: A Review,” International Journal of Food Properties 20, no. 6 (2017): 1251–61, https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2016.1210162.
27. Dandan Yang, Zijing Zhou, and Lijuan Zhang, “Chapter Eight—An Overview of Fungal Glycan-Based Therapeutics,” Glycans and Glycosaminoglycans as Clinical Biomarkers and Therapeutics—Part B, ed. Lijuan Zhang, in Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, vol. 163 (Cambridge, Mass.: Academic Press, 2019), 135–63, https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2019.02.001.
28. Gary Deng et al., “A Phase I/II Trial of a Polysaccharide Extract from Grifola frondosa (Maitake Mushroom) in Breast Cancer Patients: Immunological Effects,” Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology 135, no. 9 (September 2009): 1215–21, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00432-09-0562-z.
29. Sara Rosicler Vieira Spim et al., “Effects of Shiitake Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom, Lentinus edodes (Agaricomycetes), Bars on Lipid and Antioxidant Profiles in Individuals with Borderline High Cholesterol: A Double-Blind Randomized Clinical Trial,” International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 23, no. 7 (2021): 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1615/IntJMedMushrooms.2021038773.
30. Meng Zhang et al., “Chapter Thirteen—Mushroom Polysaccharide Lentinan for Treating Different Types of Cancers: A Review of 12 Years Clinical Studies in China,” in Glycans and Glycosaminoglycans as Clinical Biomarkers and Therapeutics—Part B, ed. Lijuan Zhang, Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, vol. 163 (Cambridge, Mass.: Academic Press, 2019), 297–398, https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2019.02.013.
31. “Drug War Stats,” Drug Policy Alliance, accessed November 15, 2023, https://drugpolicy.org/drug-war-stats/.
32. US Department of Justice/Drug Enforcement Administration, Psilocybin Drug Fact Sheet (Springfield, Va.: Drug Enforcement Administration, April 2020), 2, https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2020-06/Psilocybin-2020_0.pdf.
33. Michael Pollan, How to Change Your Mind: What the New Science of Psychedelics Teaches Us about Consciousness, Dying, Addiction, Depression, and Transcendence (New York: Penguin, 2018), 110–114.
34. “Drug War Stats,” Drug Policy Alliance, accessed November 15, 2023, https://drugpolicy.org/drug-war-stats/.
35. Adam R. Winstock et al., Global Drug Survey 2017 (London: Global Drug Survey [GDS], 2017), slide 20, https://www.globaldrugsurvey.com/wp-content/themes/globaldrugsurvey/results/GDS2017_key-findings-report_final.pdf.
36. Bheatrix Bienemann et al., “Self-Reported Negative Outcomes of Psilocybin Users: A Quantitative Textual Analysis,” PLOS ONE 15, no. 2 (February 21, 2020): e0229067, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229067.
37. Robin L. Carhart-Harris and Guy M. Goodwin, “The Therapeutic Potential of Psychedelic Drugs: Past, Present, and Future,” Neuropsychopharmacology 42 (October 2017): 2105–13, https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.84.
38. Alan Kooi Davis et al., “Effects of Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy on Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial,” JAMA Psychiatry 78, no. 5 (May 1, 2021): 481–89, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.3285.
39. Natalie Gukasyan et al., “Efficacy and Safety of Psilocybin-Assisted Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder: Prospective 12-Month Follow-Up,” Journal of Psychopharmacology 36, no. 2 (February 2022): 151–58, https://doi.org/10.1177/02698811211073759.
40. Andrew Jacobs, “Legal Use of Hallucinogenic Mushrooms Begins in Oregon,” New York Times, January 3, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/03/health/psychedelic-drugs-mushrooms-oregon.html.
41. Jamie Parfitt, “Oregon Opens the Gates for Legal Psilocybin Industry in 2023,” KGW8 Portland, January 3, 2023, https://www.kgw.com/article/news/local/the-story/oregon-legal-psilocybin-license-therapy/283-abe96f97-551d-4baf-8a03-8ab1883bd100.
42. Danica Jefferies, “Colorado Just Legalized ‘Magic Mushrooms,’ an Idea That’s Growing Nationwide,” NBC News, November 11, 2022, https://www.nbcnews.com/data-graphics/magic-mushrooms-psilocybin-map-colorado-us-states-rcna55980.
43. Dominique Strauss et al., “An Overview on the Taxonomy, Phylogenetics and Ecology of the Psychedelic Genera Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus and Gymnopilus,” Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 5 (May 23, 2022): 813998, https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2022.813998.
44. Hannah T. Reynolds et al., “Horizontal Gene Cluster Transfer Increased Hallucinogenic Mushroom Diversity,” Evolution Letters 2, no. 2 (April 2018): 88–101, https://doi.org/10.1002/evl3.42.
45. Robin L. Carhart-Harris et al., “Psilocybin for Treatment-Resistant Depression: fMRI-Measured Brain Mechanisms,” Scientific Reports 7 (October 13, 2017): 13817, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-13282-7.
46. Zafar Alam Mahmood, “Bioactive Alkaloids from Fungi: Psilocybin,” in Natural Products: Phytochemistry, Botany and Metabolism of Alkaloids, Phenolics and Terpenes, ed. Kishan Gopal Ramawat and Jean-Michel Mérillon (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 2013), 523–52, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22144-6_19.
47. Klára Gotvaldová et al., “Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23 (November 15, 2022): 14068, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232214068.
48. Katarzyna Stebelska, “Fungal Hallucinogens Psilocin, Ibotenic Acid, and Muscimol: Analytical Methods and Biologic Activities,” Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 35, no. 4 (August 2013): 420–42, https://doi.org/10.1097/FTD.0b013e31828741a5.
49. Jennifer Ouellette, “Viking Berserkers May Have Used Henbane to Induce Trance-Like State,” Ars Technica, September 18, 2019, https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/09/viking-berserkers-may-have-used-henbane-to-induce-trance-like-state/.
50. Alfredo Manfridi, Dario Brambilla, and Mauro Mancia, “Sleep Is Differently Modulated by Basal Forebrain GABAA and GABAB Receptors,” American Journal of Physiology—Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 281, no. 1 (July 2001): R170–75, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.2001.281.1.R170.
51. “Method for Producing Muscimol and/or Reducing Ibotenic Acid from Amanita Tissue,” Google Patents webpage, accessed November 15, 2023, https://patents.google.com/patent/US20140004084A1/en.
52. Maria Voynova et al., “Toxicological and Pharmacological Profile of Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam.—a New Rising Opportunity for Biomedicine,” Pharmacia 67, no. 4 (November 26, 2020): 317–23, https://doi.org/10.3897/pharmacia.67.e56112.
53. Leo E. Hollister, “New Class of Hallucinogens: GABA-Enhancing Agents,” Drug Development Research 21, no. 3 (1990): 253–56, https://doi.org/10.1002/ddr.430210311.
54. Tom Volk and Debby Hanmer, “Phaeolus schweinitzii, the Dye Polypore or Velvet-Top Fungus,” Tom Volk’s Fungi, November 2007, https://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/nov2007.html.
55. Bloom & Dye, “Cortinarius sanguineus,” Mushroom Color Atlas, accessed November 15, 2023, https://mushroomcoloratlas.com/mushroom/cortinarius_sanguineus/.
56. Jan Velíšek and Karel Cejpek, “Pigments of Higher Fungi—a Review,” Czech Journal of Food Sciences 29, no. 2 (April 30, 2011): 87–102, https://doi.org/10.17221/524/2010-CJFS.
57. Franz-Sebastian Krah et al., “European Mushroom Assemblages Are Darker in Cold Climates,” Nature Communications 10 (June 28, 2019): 2890, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10767-z.
58. Carsten Wieder et al., “Characterisation of Ascocorynin Biosynthesis in the Purple Jellydisc Fungus Ascocoryne sarcoides,” Fungal Biology and Biotechnology 9 (April 27, 2022): 8, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40694-022-00138-7.
59. Filip Fuljer et al., “Neohygrocybe pseudoingrata, a New Grassland Species from Slovakia and the Czech Republic,” Fungal Systematics and Evolution 9, no. 1 (June 2022): 11–17, https://doi.org/10.3114/fuse.2022.09.02.
60. D. Jean Lodge et al., “Molecular Phylogeny, Morphology, Pigment Chemistry and Ecology in Hygrophoraceae (Agaricales),” Fungal Diversity 64 (January 2014): 1–99, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13225-013-0259-0.
61. Walter M. Jaklitsch, Marc Stadler, and Hermann Voglmayr, “Blue Pigment in Hypocrea caerulescens sp. nov. and Two Additional New Species in sect. Trichoderma,” Mycologia 104, no. 4 (2012): 925–41, https://doi.org/10.3852/11-327.
62. Lillian Barros et al., “Phenolic Acids Determination by HPLC–DAD–ESI/MS in Sixteen Different Portuguese Wild Mushrooms Species,” Food and Chemical Toxicology 47, no. 6 (June 2009): 1076–79, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2009.01.039.
63. Jianzhao Qi, Yu-Qi Gao, et al., "Secondary Metabolites of Bird’s Nest Fungi: Chemical Structures and Biological Activities," Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 71, no. 17: 6513–24 (April 18, 2023), https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.3c00904.
64. Pattana Kakumyan et al., “Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in the Stinkhorn Fungus Pseudocolus fusiformis in Different Stages of Fruiting Body Formation,” Mycoscience 61, no. 2 (November 7, 2019): 65–70, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.myc.2019.11.001.
65. Rui S. Oliveira et al., "Exploring the Bioactive Potential of Pisolithus (Basidiomycota): Comprehensive Insights into Antimicrobial, Anticancer, and Antioxidant Properties for Innovative Applications," Microorganisms 12, no. 3 (February 23, 2024): 450, https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12030450.
66. Celina M. P. Guerra Dore et al., "Antiinflammatory, Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Actions of β-glucan-rich extract from Geastrum saccatum mushroom," International Immunopharmacology 7, no. 9 (September 15, 2007): 1160–69, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2007.04.010.
67. Lawrence Leonard and Tom Volk, “Sphaerobolus stellatus, the Cannonball Fungus,” Tom Volk’s Fungi, July 2005, https://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/jul2005.html.
Non-Mushroom Fungi
1. Matthew R. Goddard and Duncan Greig, “Saccharomyces cerevisiae: A Nomadic Yeast with No Niche?,” FEMS Yeast Research 15, no. 3 (May 2015): fov009, https://doi.org/10.1093/femsyr/fov009.
2. Chad Michael Yakobson, “The Oxford Companion to Beer Definition of Brettanomyces,” Craft Beer & Brewing, accessed November 15, 2023, https://beerandbrewing.com/dictionary/sZ3rBkmAXZ/.
3. Chandre Monerawela and Ursula Bond, “The Hybrid Genomes of Saccharomyces pastorianus: A Current Perspective,” Yeast 35, no. 1 (January 2018): 39–50, https://doi.org/10.1002/yea.3250.
4. Hervé Alexandre, “Flor Yeasts of Saccharomyces cerevisiae—Their Ecology, Genetics and Metabolism,” International Journal of Food Microbiology 167, no. 2 (October 15, 2013): 269–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.08.021.
5. Omar Pérez-Alvarado et al., “Role of Lactic Acid Bacteria and Yeasts in Sourdough Fermentation during Breadmaking: Evaluation of Postbiotic-Like Components and Health Benefits,” Frontiers in Microbiology 13 (September 8, 2022): 969460, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.969460.
6. Pedro Pais et al., "Saccharomyces boulardii: What Makes It Tick as Successful Probiotic?" Journal of Fungi 6, no. 2: 78; (June 1, 2020), https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6020078.
7. Leonardo Petruzzi et al., “Chapter 1—Microbial Spoilage of Foods: Fundamentals,” in The Microbiological Quality of Food: Foodborne Spoilers, ed. Antonio Bevilacqua, Maria Rosaria Corbo, and Milena Sinigaglia, Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (Cambridge, UK: Woodhead, 2017), 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100502-6.00002-9.
8. Benjamin Wolfe, “Microbe Guide: Zygosaccharomyces rouxii,” MicrobialFoods.org, January 8, 2014, https://microbialfoods.org/microbe-guide-zygosaccharomyces-rouxii/.
9. Pat Polowsky, “Penicillium Mold,” Cheese Science Toolkit, accessed November 15, 2023, https://www.cheesescience.org/penicillium.html.
10. Robert L. Wolke, “Food 101: Cheese Course,” Washington Post, August 18, 2004, F01, https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A8353-2004Aug17.html.
11. Renato Chávez, Inmaculada Vaca, and Carlos García-Estrada, “Secondary Metabolites Produced by the Blue-Cheese Ripening Mold Penicillium roqueforti; Biosynthesis and Regulation Mechanisms,” Journal of Fungi 9 (April 10, 2023): 459, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9040459.
12. Margot Otto et al., “Botrytis cinerea Expression Profile and Metabolism Differs between Noble and Grey Rot of Grapes,” Food Microbiology 106 (September 2022): 104037, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2022.104037.
13. Araceli Vidal et al., “Endophytic Fungi Isolated from Plants Growing in Central Andean Precordillera of Chile with Antifungal Activity against Botrytis cinerea,” Journal of Fungi 6, no. 3 (September 2020): 149, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6030149.
14. Takuro Kiyota et al., “Aflatoxin Non-productivity of Aspergillus oryzae Caused by Loss of Function in the aflJ Gene Product,” Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 111, no. 5 (May 2011): 512–17, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiosc.2010.12.022.
15. René Redzepi and David Zilber, The Noma Guide to Fermentation (New York: Artisan, 2018), 221–67.
16. Hamada El-Gendi et al., “A Comprehensive Insight into Fungal Enzymes: Structure, Classification, and Their Role in Mankind’s Challenges,” Journal of Fungi 8 (December 28, 2021): 23, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8010023.
17. Barinderjeet Singh Toor, Amarjeet Kaur, and Jaspreet Kaur, “Fermentation of Legumes with Rhizopus oligosporus: Effect on Physicochemical, Functional and Microstructural Properties,” International Journal of Food Science & Technology 57, no. 3 (March 2022): 1763–72, https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.15552.
18. Bas J. Meussen et al., “Metabolic Engineering of Rhizopus oryzae for the Production of Platform Chemicals,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 94 (May 2012): 875–86, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-012-4033-0.
19. Cletus Paul Kurtzman, “Biotechnological Strains of Komagataella (Pichia) pastoris Are Komagataella phaffii as Determined from Multigene Sequence Analysis,” Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology 36, no. 11 (November 1, 2009): 1435, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10295-009-0638-4.
20. Lukas Bernauer et al., “Komagataella phaffii as Emerging Model Organism in Fundamental Research,” Frontiers in Microbiology 11 (January 11, 2021): 607028, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.607028.
21. Aravind Madhavan et al., “Customized Yeast Cell Factories for Biopharmaceuticals: From Cell Engineering to Process Scale Up,” Microbial Cell Factories 20 (June 30, 2021): 124, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-021-01617-z.
22. Stefan Hohmann, “Nobel Yeast Research,” FEMS Yeast Research 16, no. 8 (December 2016): fow094, https://doi.org/10.1093/femsyr/fow094.
23. Eugenio Alcalde et al., “Cyclofarnesoids and Methylhexanoids Produced from β-Carotene in Phycomyces blakesleeanus,” Phytochemistry 124 (April 2016): 38–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2016.01.013.
24. Enrique Cerdá-Olmedo, “Phycomyces and the Biology of Light and Color,” FEMS Microbiology Reviews 25, no. 5 (December 1, 2001): 503–12, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00588.x.
25. Eric U. Selker, “Neurospora crassa,” Reference Module in Life Sciences, Elsevier Reference Collection (2017), https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809633-8.06790-X.
26. Christopher L. Baker, Jennifer J. Loros, and Jay C. Dunlap, “The Circadian Clock of Neurospora crassa,” FEMS Microbiology Reviews 36, no. 1 (January 1, 2012): 95–110, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00288.x.
27. Mi Zhou et al., “Experimental Evolution of Multidrug Resistance in Neurospora crassa under Antifungal Azole Stress,” Journal of Fungi 8, no. 2 (February 18, 2022): 198, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8020198.
28. Rui Han et al., “Neurospora crassa Is a Potential Source of Anti-cancer Agents against Breast Cancer,” Breast Cancer 29, no. 6 (November 2022): 1032–41: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12282-022-01383-9.
29. Eun-Hwa Lee et al., “Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Their Roles in Ecosystems,” Mycobiology 41, no. 3 (September 2013): 121–25, https://doi.org/10.5941/MYCO.2013.41.3.121.
30. Amir Manteghi et al., “Is the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Funneliformis mosseae a Suitable Agent to Control Criconematid Populations?,” Diversity 14, no. 11 (October 24, 2022): 898, https://doi.org/10.3390/d14110898.
31. Anamika Verma et al., “Fungal Endophytes to Combat Biotic and Abiotic Stresses for Climate-Smart and Sustainable Agriculture,” Frontiers in Plant Science 13 (July 5, 2022): 953836, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.953836.
32. Juan Wen et al., “Endophytic Fungi: An Effective Alternative Source of Plant-Derived Bioactive Compounds for Pharmacological Studies,” Journal of Fungi 8, no. 2 (February 20, 2022): 205, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8020205.
33. Daniel J. Caruso et al., “Exploring the Promise of Endophytic Fungi: A Review of Novel Antimicrobial Compounds,” Microorganisms 10, no. 10 (October 8, 2022): 1990, https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10101990.
34. Sheridan L. Woo et al., “Trichoderma: A Multipurpose, Plant-Beneficial Microorganism for Eco-Sustainable Agriculture,” Nature Reviews Microbiology 21 (May 2023): 312–26, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-022-00819-5.
35. Harsukh P. Gajera and Dinesh Vakharia, “Production of Lytic Enzymes by Trichoderma Isolates during in vitro Antagonism with Aspergillus niger, the Causal Agent of Collar Rot of Peanut,” Brazilian Journal of Microbiology 43, no. 1 (March 2012): 43–52, https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822012000100005.
36. Rodrigo Mendes, Paolina Garbeva, and Jos M. Raaijmakers, “The Rhizosphere Microbiome: Significance of Plant Beneficial, Plant Pathogenic, and Human Pathogenic Microorganisms,” FEMS Microbiology Reviews 37, no. 5 (September 1, 2013): 634–63, https://doi.org/10.1111/1574-6976.12028.
37. Cécile Lorrain et al., “Advances in Understanding Obligate Biotrophy in Rust Fungi,” New Phytologist 222, no. 3 (May 2019): 1190–1206, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15641.
38. “Puccinia,” Study Solutions, accessed November 15, 2023, https://istudy.pk/puccinia/.
39. Stephan Helfer, “Rust Fungi and Global Change,” New Phytologist 201, no. 3 (February 2014): 770–80, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.12570.
40. Karina van der Linde and Vera Göhre, “How Do Smut Fungi Use Plant Signals to Spatiotemporally Orientate on and In Planta?,” Journal of Fungi 7, no. 2 (February 2, 2021): 107, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7020107.
41. Teena Agarwal, “Smut of Crops: A Review,” Research & Reviews: Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 5, no. 1 (November 2017): 54–57, https://www.rroij.com/open-access/smut-of-crops-a-review-.pdf.
42. Navneet Kaur et al., “Dispersal Potential of Ergot Spores by Insects Foraging in the Perennial Ryegrass Fields in the Columbia Basin of Oregon and Washington,” Crop, Forage & Turfgrass Management 5, no. 1 (2019): 1–5, 190020, https://doi.org/10.2134/cftm2019.04.0020.
43. Alan Woolf, “Witchcraft or Mycotoxin? The Salem Witch Trials,” Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology 38, no. 4 (2000): 457–60, https://doi.org/10.1081/clt-100100958.
44. Maria Carla Cravero, “Musty and Moldy Taint in Wines: A Review,” Beverages 6, no. 2 (June 16, 2020): 41, https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages6020041.
45. Yunlong Li et al., “Biocontrol Agent Bacillus amyloliquefaciens LJ02 Induces Systemic Resistance against Cucurbits Powdery Mildew,” Frontiers in Microbiology 6 (August 28, 2015): 883, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.00883.
46. Jassy Drakulic, Toby J. A. Bruce, and Rumiana V. Ray, “Direct and Host-Mediated Interactions between Fusarium Pathogens and Herbivorous Arthropods in Cereals,” Plant Pathology 66, no. 1 (January 2017): 3–13, https://doi.org/10.1111/ppa.12546.
47. Bradley Temple et al., “Cerato-ulmin, a Hydrophobin Secreted by the Causal Agents of Dutch Elm Disease, Is a Parasitic Fitness Factor,” Fungal Genetics and Biology 22, no. 1 (August 1997): 39–53, https://doi.org/10.1006/fgbi.1997.0991.
48. Michelle Grabowski, “Dutch Elm Disease,” University of Minnesota Extension, reviewed 2019, https://extension.umn.edu/plant-diseases/dutch-elm-disease.
49. Thomas P. Holmes et al., “Economic Impacts of Invasive Species in Forests: Past, Present, and Future,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1162, no. 1 (April 2009): 18–38, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04446.x.
50. Mark Mcmullan et al., “The Ash Dieback Invasion of Europe Was Founded by Two Genetically Divergent Individuals,” Nature Ecology & Evolution 2 (June 2018): 1000–08, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0548-9.
51. Jonàs Oliva, Miguel Ángel Redondo, and Jan Stenlid, “Functional Ecology of Forest Disease,” Annual Review of Phytopathology 58 (August 2020): 343–61, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-050028.
52. Tina L. Cheng et al., “The Scope and Severity of White-Nose Syndrome on Hibernating Bats in North America,” Conservation Biology 35, no. 5 (October 2021): 1586–97, https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13739.
53. DeeAnn M. Reeder et al., “Frequent Arousal from Hibernation Linked to Severity of Infection and Mortality in Bats with White-Nose Syndrome,” PLOS ONE 7, no. 6 (June 20, 2012): e38920, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038920.
54. USGS Communications and Publishing, “White-Nose Syndrome Killed over 90% of Three North American Bat Species,” USGS, April 21, 2021, https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/white-nose-syndrome-killed-over-90-three-north-american-bat-species.
55. Charissa de Bekker, William C. Beckerson, and Carolyn Elya, “Mechanisms behind the Madness: How Do Zombie-Making Fungal Entomopathogens Affect Host Behavior to Increase Transmission?,” mBio 12, no. 5 (September/October 2021): e01872-21, https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.01872-21.
56. Greg R. Boyce et al., “Psychoactive Plant- and Mushroom-Associated Alkaloids from Two Behavior Modifying Cicada Pathogens,” Fungal Ecology 41 (October 2019): 147–64, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.funeco.2019.06.002.
57. Angie M. Macias et al., “Evolutionary Relationships among Massospora spp. (Entomophthorales), Obligate Pathogens of Cicadas,” Mycologia 112, no. 6 (2020): 1060–74, https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.2020.1742033.
58. Carolyn Elya and Henrik H. De Fine Licht, “The Genus Entomophthora: Bringing the Insect Destroyers into the Twenty-First Century,” IMA Fungus 12 (November 12, 2021): 34, https://doi.org/10.1186/s43008-021-00084-w.
59. Andrii P. Gryganskyi et al., “Hijacked: Co-option of Host Behavior by Entomophthoralean Fungi,” PLOS Pathogens 13, no. 5 (May 4, 2017): e1006274, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1006274.
60. Almudena Ortiz-Urquiza, “The Split Personality of Beauveria bassiana: Understanding the Molecular Basis of Fungal Parasitism and Mutualism,” mSystems 6, no. 4 (July/August 2021): e00766-21, https://doi.org/10.1128/msystems.00766-21.
61. Charissa de Bekker, William C. Beckerson, and Carolyn Elya, “Mechanisms behind the Madness: How Do Zombie-Making Fungal Entomopathogens Affect Host Behavior to Increase Transmission?,” mBio 12, no. 5 (September/October 2021): e01872-21, https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.01872-21.
62. Haiyang Wang et al., “The Toxins of Beauveria bassiana and the Strategies to Improve Their Virulence to Insects,” Frontiers in Microbiology 12 (August 2021): 705343, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.705343.
63. Bhushan Shrestha et al., “Molecular Evidence of a Teleomorph-Anamorph Connection between Cordyceps scarabaeicola and Beauveria sungii and Its Implication for the Systematics of Cordyceps Sensu Stricto,” Mycoscience 55, no. 3 (2014): 231–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.myc.2013.09.004.
64. Anuradha Chowdhary et al., “Recognizing Filamentous Basidiomycetes as Agents of Human Disease: A Review,” Medical Mycology 52, no. 8 (November 2014): 782–97, https://doi.org/10.1093/mmy/myu047.
65. Soma Dutta and Ujjwayini Ray, “Paratracheal Abscess by Plant Fungus Chondrostereum purpureum—First Case Report of Human Infection,” Medical Mycology Case Reports 40 (June 2023): 30–32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mmcr.2023.03.001.
66. Caterina Cavanna et al., “Human Infections Due to Schizophyllum commune: Case Report and Review of the Literature,” Journal de Mycologie Médicale 29, no. 4 (December 2019): 365–71, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mycmed.2019.100897.
67. Marcio L. Rodrigues and Joshua D. Nosanchuk, “Fungal Diseases as Neglected Pathogens: A Wake-Up Call to Public Health Officials,” PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 14, no. 2 (February 20, 2020): e0007964, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0007964.
68. Scott Upton, “Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis—The Link between Climate Change and Amphibians,” Microbewiki, last modified April 8, 2021, https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidis_-_The_Link_Between_Climate_Change_and_Amphibians.
69. Britt A. Bunyard, The Lives of Fungi: A Natural History of Our Planet’s Decomposers (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2022), 138–39, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0007964.
70. Matthijs Hollanders et al., “Recovered Frog Populations Coexist with Endemic Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis despite Load-Dependent Mortality,” Ecological Applications 33, no. 1 (August 21, 2022): e2724, https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2724.
71. Radwa Alaraby Hanafy et al., “Taxonomy of the Anaerobic Gut Fungi (Neocallimastigomycota): A Review of Classification Criteria and Description of Current Taxa,” International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 72, no. 7 (July 1, 2022): 005322, https://doi.org/10.1099/ijsem.0.005322.
72. Chelsea L. Murphy et al., “Horizontal Gene Transfer as an Indispensable Driver for Evolution of Neocallimastigomycota into a Distinct Gut-Dwelling Fungal Lineage,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 85, no. 15 (August 2019), https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00988-19.
73. Catriona A. Wilson and Thomas M. Wood, “Studies on the Cellulase of the Rumen Anaerobic Fungus Neocallimastix frontalis, with Special Reference to the Capacity of the Enzyme to Degrade Crystalline Cellulose,” Enzyme and Microbial Technology 14, no. 4 (April 1992): 258–64, https://doi.org/10.1016/0141-0229(92)90148-H.
74. Casey A. Hooker, Kok Zhi Lee, and Kevin V. Solomon, “Leveraging Anaerobic Fungi for Biotechnology,” Current Opinion in Biotechnology 59 (October 2019): 103–10, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2019.03.013.
75. Jun Xu et al., “Dandruff-Associated Malassezia Genomes Reveal Convergent and Divergent Virulence Traits Shared with Plant and Human Fungal Pathogens,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104, no. 47 (November 20, 2007): 18730–35, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0706756104.
76. Ditte M. L. Saunte, George Gaitanis, and Roderick James Hay, “Malassezia-Associated Skin Diseases, the Use of Diagnostics and Treatment,” Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 10 (March 20, 2020): 112, https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.00112.
77. Peter Mayser et al., “Pityriacitrin—an Ultraviolet-Absorbing Indole Alkaloid from the Yeast Malassezia furfur,” Archives of Dermatological Research 294 (May 2002): 131–34, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-002-0294-2.
78. Rebecca A. Hall and Mairi C. Noverr, “Fungal Interactions with the Human Host: Exploring the Spectrum of Symbiosis,” Current Opinion in Microbiology 40 (December 2017): 58–64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2017.10.020.
79. Lisa Howard, “CDC Issues Warning about Increase of Drug-Resistant Candida auris Infections,” UC Davis Health News, March 23, 2023, https://health.ucdavis.edu/news/headlines/cdc-issues-warning-about-increase-of-drug-resistant-candida-auris-infections/2023/03.
80. Hazael Hernandez, Victor H. Erives, and Luis R. Martinez, “Coccidioidomycosis: Epidemiology, Fungal Pathogenesis, and Therapeutic Development,” Current Tropical Medicine Reports 6, no. 2 (September 15, 2019): 132–44, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40475-019-00184-z.
81. Maria Grimm et al., “The Lichens’ Microbiota, Still a Mystery?,” Frontiers in Microbiology 12 (March 30, 2021): 623839, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.623839.
82. Toby Spribille et al., “Evolutionary Biology of Lichen Symbioses,” New Phytologist 234, no. 5 (June 2022): 1566–82, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.18048.
83. Walter Fertig, “Ten Things You Might Not Know about Lichens, But Wish You Did,” ASU Biodiversity Knowledge Integration Center, accessed November 15, 2023, https://biokic.asu.edu/ten_things_about_lichens.
84. Thomas Roehl, “#230: Lichenomphalia umbellifera,” Fungus Fact Friday, last modified March 28, 2020, https://www.fungusfactfriday.com/230-lichenomphalia-umbellifera/.
85. Maria Grimm et al., “The Lichens’ Microbiota, Still a Mystery?,” Frontiers in Microbiology 12 (March 30, 2021): 623839, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.623839.
86. Francisco Gasulla et al., “Advances in Understanding of Desiccation Tolerance of Lichens and Lichen-Forming Algae.” Plants 10, no. 4 (April 20, 2021): 807, https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040807.
87. Kyle Joly, Randi R. Jandt, and David R. Klein, “Decrease of Lichens in Arctic Ecosystems: The Role of Wildfire, Caribou, Reindeer, Competition and Climate in North-western Alaska,” Polar Research 28, no. 3 (December 1, 2009): 433–42, https://doi.org/10.3402/polar.v28i3.6134.
88. Asghar Sepahvand et al., “Usnea sp.: Antimicrobial Potential, Bioactive Compounds, Ethnopharmacological Uses and Other Pharmacological Properties; A Review Article,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 268 (December 20, 2020): 113656, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113656.
89. Lei Guo et al., “Review of Usnic Acid and Usnea barbata Toxicity,” Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C: Environmental Carcinogenesis and Ecotoxicology Reviews 26, no. 4 (November 26, 2008): 317–38, https://doi.org/10.1080/10590500802533392.
90. Daniela Varrica, Federica Lo Medico, and Maria Grazia Alaimo, “Air Quality Assessment by the Determination of Trace Elements in Lichens (Xanthoria calcicola) in an Industrial Area (Sicily, Italy),” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 15 (August 8, 2022): 9746, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159746.
91. Christian Lorenz et al., “Survivability of the Lichen Xanthoria parietina in Simulated Martian Environmental Conditions,” Scientific Reports 13 (March 25, 2023): 4893, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-32008-6.
92. Muzaffer Mükemre et al., “Biological Activities and Chemical Composition of Xanthoria Lichens from Turkey,” International Journal of Secondary Metabolite 8, no. 4 (December 26, 2021): 376–88, https://doi.org/10.21448/ijsm.994427.
93. Anders Tehler and Martin Irestedt, “Parallel Evolution of Lichen Growth Forms in the Family Roccellaceae (Arthoniales, Ascomycota),” Cladistics 23, no. 5 (October 2007): 432–54, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00156.x.
94. Béatrice Legouin et al., “Specialized Metabolites of the Lichen Vulpicida pinastri Act as Photoprotective Agents,” Molecules 22, no. 7 (July 12, 2017): 1162, https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22071162.
95. Tanvir Ul Hassan Dar et al., “Lichens as a Repository of Bioactive Compounds: An Open Window for Green Therapy against Diverse Cancers,” Seminars in Cancer Biology 86, Part 2 (November 2022): 1120–37, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.05.028.
96. Michaela Schmull et al., “Dictyonema huaorani (Agaricales: Hygrophoraceae), a New Lichenized Basidiomycete from Amazonian Ecuador with Presumed Hallucinogenic Properties,” The Bryologist 117, no. 4 (Winter 2014): 386–94, https://doi.org/10.1639/0007-2745-117.4.386.
97. National Park Service, “Lichens as Bioindicators,” US Department of the Interior, last modified February 11, 2019, https://www.nps.gov/articles/lichens-as-bioindicators.htm.
98. Tom Bradwell and Richard A. Armstrong, “Growth Rates of Rhizocarpon geographicum Lichens: A Review with New Data from Iceland,” Journal of Quaternary Science 22, no. 4 (May 2007): 311–20, https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.1058.
99. Leopoldo G. Sancho et al., “Lichens Survive in Space: Results from the 2005 LICHENS Experiment,” Astrobiology 7, no. 3 (June 2007): 443–54, https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2006.0046.
Fungal Phenomena
1. D. T. Hughes, "The Effect of Diesel-Oil Soot on Differentiation of the Cultivated Mushroom: Agaricus campestris var. bisporus," British Journal of Cancer 15 (March 1, 1961), 101–113, https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.1961.11.
2. Levi Yafetto, “The Structure of Mycelial Cords and Rhizomorphs of Fungi: A Mini-Review,” Mycosphere 9, no. 5 (October 10, 2018): 984–98, https://doi.org/10.5943/mycosphere/9/5/3.
3. Mee-Sook Kim et al., “Chapter 20—Armillaria Root Diseases of Diverse Trees in Wide-Spread Global Regions,” in Forest Tree Health, ed. Fred O. Asiegbu and Andriy Kovalchuk, Forest Microbiology, vol. 2 (Cambridge, Mass.: Academic Press, 2022), 361–65, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85042-1.00004-5.
4. Luis M. Corrochano and Paul Galland, “11 Photomorphogenesis and Gravitropism in Fungi,” in Growth, Differentiation and Sexuality, ed. Jürgen Wendland, The Mycota, vol. 1, 3rd ed. (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2016), 235–66, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25844-7_11.
5. Volker D. Kern, Kurt Mendgen, and Bertold Hock, “Flammulina as a Model System for Fungal Graviresponses,” Planta 203, Supplement 1 (August 1997): S23–32, https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00008111.
6. Philip Weinstein et al., “Bioluminescence in the Ghost Fungus Omphalotus nidiformis Does Not Attract Potential Spore Dispersing Insects,” IMA Fungus 7 (December 2016): 229–34, https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2016.07.02.01.
7. Huei-Mien Ke et al., “Mycena Genomes Resolve the Evolution of Fungal Bioluminescence,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 49 (December 8, 2020): 31267–77, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2010761117.
8. Asunción Morte et al., “Cultivation of Desert Truffles—A Crop Suitable for Arid and Semi-Arid Zones,” Agronomy 11, no. 8 (July 22, 2021): 1462, https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11081462.
9. Hali Stuck, “The Importance of Cryptobiotic Soil and How Earth Law Can Help,” Earth Law Center, June 27, 2019, https://www.earthlawcenter.org/blog-entries/2019/6/the-importance-cryptobiotic-soil-and-how-earth-law-can-help.
10. Hans-Peter Grossart et al., “Fungi in Aquatic Ecosystems,” Nature Reviews Microbiology 17 (June 2019): 339–54, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-019-0175-8.
11. Patricia Velez et al., “Fungal Diversity in Sediments from Deep-Sea Extreme Ecosystems: Insights into Low- and High-Temperature Hydrothermal Vents, and an Oxygen Minimum Zone in the Southern Gulf of California, Mexico,” Frontiers in Marine Science 9 (February 17, 2022): 802634, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.802634.
12. Jonathan L. Frank, “Psathyrella aquatica Fruiting In Vitro,” Northwest Science 88, no. 1 (January 2014): 44–48, https://doi.org/10.3955/046.088.0108.
13. Digar Singh, Su Young Son, and Choong Hwan Lee, “Critical Thresholds of 1-Octen-3-ol Shape Inter-species Aspergillus Interactions Modulating the Growth and Secondary Metabolism,” Scientific Reports 10 (July 6, 2020): 11116, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-68096-x.
14. Jinjie Zhou, Tao Feng, and Ran Ye, “Differentiation of Eight Commercial Mushrooms by Electronic Nose and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry,” Journal of Sensors 2015 (March 19, 2015): 374013, https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/374013.
15. Anne F. Murray, Andrew J. Moore, and John P. Munafo Jr., “Key Odorants from the American Matsutake, Tricholoma magnivelare,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 68, no. 36 (August 25, 2020): 9768–75, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.0c03372.
16. Heikki Aisala et al., “Odor-Contributing Volatile Compounds of Wild Edible Nordic Mushrooms Analyzed with HS–SPME–GC–MS and HS–SPME–GC–O/FID,” Food Chemistry 283 (June 15, 2019): 566–78, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.01.053.
17. Françoise Fons et al., "Volatile Compounds in the Cantharellus, Craterellus and Hydnum genera," Cryptogamie Mycologie 24, no. 4 (January 2003): 367–76, https://sciencepress.mnhn.fr/en/periodiques/mycologie/24/4/les-substances-volatiles-dans-les-genres-cantharellus-craterellus-et-hydnum.
18. William F. Wood et al., “The Maple Syrup Odour of the ‘Candy Cap’ Mushroom, Lactarius fragilis var. rubidus,” Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 43 (August 2012): 51–53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2012.02.027.
19. Zengtao Xing et al., “[Analysis on the Volatile Flavor Compounds in Agaricus blazei by GC-MS],” (article in Chinese), Zhong Yao Cai 26, no. 11 (November 2003): 789–91, PMID 14989059, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14989059/.
20. Ke-Qin Zhang and Kevin D. Hyde, eds., Nematode-Trapping Fungi, Fungal Diversity Research Series, volume 23 (Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer, 2014), 1–12, https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-017-8730-7.
21. Marlon Henrique Hahn et al., “Nematophagous Mushrooms Can Be an Alternative to Control Meloidogyne javanica,” Biological Control 138 (November 2019): 104024, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2019.104024.
22. Patty Rasmussen, “What Is Whiskey Fungus and Is It Dangerous?,” HowStuffWorks.com, March 7, 2024, https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/biology-fields/whiskey-fungus.htm.
23. Kwang-Woo Jung et al., “Unraveling Fungal Radiation Resistance Regulatory Networks through the Genome-Wide Transcriptome and Genetic Analyses of Cryptococcus neoformans,” mBio 7, no. 6 (November/December 2016): e01483-16, https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.01483-16.
24. Ekaterina Dadachova et al., “Ionizing Radiation Changes the Electronic Properties of Melanin and Enhances the Growth of Melanized Fungi,” PLOS ONE 2, no. 5 (May 23, 2007): e457, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000457.
25. Arturo Casadevall et al., “Melanin, Radiation, and Energy Transduction in Fungi,” Microbiology Spectrum 5, no. 2 (March 3, 2017), https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.funk-0037-2016.
26. Roland Geyer, Jenna R. Jambeck, and Kara Lavender Law, “Production, Use, and Fate of All Plastics Ever Made,” Science Advances 3, no. 7 (July 19, 2017): e1700782, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782.
27. Anusha Hasini Ekanayaka et al., “A Review of the Fungi That Degrade Plastic,” Journal of Fungi 8, no. 8 (July 25, 2022): 772, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8080772.
28. Jyotika Purohit, Anirudha Chattopadhyay, and Basavaraj Teli, “Metagenomic Exploration of Plastic Degrading Microbes for Biotechnological Application,” Current Genomics 21, no. 4 (2020): 253–70, https://doi.org/10.2174/1389202921999200525155711.
29. Gavin Lear et al., “Plastics and the Microbiome: Impacts and Solutions,” Environmental Microbiome 16 (January 20, 2021): 2, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40793-020-00371-w.
30. Zeenat et al., “Plastics Degradation by Microbes: A Sustainable Approach,” Journal of King Saud University—Science 33, no. 6 (September 2021): 101538, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101538.
31. Claudia Coleine et al., “Endolithic Fungal Species Markers for Harshest Conditions in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica,” Life 10, no. 2 (February 6, 2020): 13, https://doi.org/10.3390/life10020013.
32. Silvano Onofri et al., “Integrity of the DNA and Cellular Ultrastructure of Cryptoendolithic Fungi in Space or Mars Conditions: A 1.5-Year Study at the International Space Station,” Life 8, no. 2 (June 19, 2018): 23, https://doi.org/10.3390/life8020023.
33. Frank H. Gleason et al., “The Roles of Endolithic Fungi in Bioerosion and Disease in Marine Ecosystems. II. Potential Facultatively Parasitic Anamorphic Ascomycetes Can Cause Disease in Corals and Molluscs,” Mycology 8, no. 3 (August 31, 2017): 216–27, https://doi.org/10.1080/21501203.2017.1371802.
Not Fungi (But Still Fascinating!)
1. Hayri Baba and Mustafa Sevindik, “The Roles of Myxomycetes in Ecosystems,” Journal of Bacteriology & Mycology: Open Access 6, no. 3 (May 4, 2018): 165–66, https://doi.org/10.15406/jbmoa.2018.06.00197.
2. Xiaoge Zhang et al., “A Biologically Inspired Network Design Model,” Scientific Reports 5 (June 4, 2015): 10794, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep10794.
3. NASA Hubble Mission Team, “Slime Mold Simulations Used to Map Dark Matter Holding Universe Together,” NASA, March 10, 2020, https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/slime-mold-simulations-used-to-map-dark-matter-holding-universe-together.
4. Vida Tafakori, “Slime Molds as a Valuable Source of Antimicrobial Agents,” AMB Express 11 (June 23, 2021): 92, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13568-021-01251-3.
5. Vincent Merckx, Martin I. Bidartondo, and Nicole A. Hynson, “Myco-Heterotrophy: When Fungi Host Plants,” Annals of Botany 104, no. 7 (December 2009): 1255–61, https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcp235.
6. Martin I. Bidartondo et al., “High Root Concentration and Uneven Ectomycorrhizal Diversity near Sarcodes sanguinea (Ericaceae): A Cheater That Stimulates Its Victims?,” American Journal of Botany 87, no. 12 (December 2000): 1783–88, https://doi.org/10.2307/2656829.
7. Galih Chersy Pujasatria, Chihiro Miura, and Hironori Kaminaka, “In Vitro Symbiotic Germination: A Revitalized Heuristic Approach for Orchid Species Conservation,” Plants 9, no. 12 (December 9, 2020): 1742, https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9121742.
8. John D. W. Dearnaley, Florent Martos, and Marc-André Selosse, “12 Orchid Mycorrhizas: Molecular Ecology, Physiology, Evolution and Conservation Aspects,” in Fungal Associations, ed. Bertold Hock, The Mycota, vol. 9, 2nd ed. (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 2012), 207–230, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-30826-0_12.